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Glossary Terms you should know.
1st century
The 1st century is the first 100 years beginning with the birth of Jesus Christ. God decreed that the Israelites would account the month of the exodus as “the beginning of months” (Ex. 12:1-2). Alternatively, Christians (and much of the world) calculates the passing of years based on the year when Mary “brought forth her firstborn Son” (Lk. 2:7; cf., Mt. 1:25). A.D. is the abbreviation that comes from the Medieval Latin expression anno Domini which means, "In the year of our Lord." The 1st century falls into the period of classical antiquity.
During the 1st century, John the Baptist, Jesus Christ, and the apostles lived and died from which this era is called the Apostolic Age. The New Testament books were composed, and Christianity exploded in growth, especially among the Gentiles. During the first 100 years from Jesus’ birth, several Roman emperors ruled, including Augustus Caesar (Lk. 2:1), Nero (Ac. 25:11-12), and Vespasian. In the 1st century, Herod’s Temple was destroyed during Roman attacks against the Jews. Christians also fell under severe persecution. The faith of the 1st century Christians, who personally knew Jesus and the apostolic fathers, was tested by torture. Philip Schaff recorded Tertullian as saying, "All your ingenious cruelties can accomplish nothing; they are only a lure to this sect. Our number increases the more you destroy us. The blood of the Christians is their seed" (source: History of the Christian Church, Volume II: Ante-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 100-325).
academic
That which is academic is scholastic in nature. That is, academic matters pertain to intellectualism or an academy of learning. All people should develop an academic understanding of the Scripture. Long-term weakness in apologetics comes from reading the Bible purely for comfort or emotional inspiration. All who read translations of the Bible are indebted to the translators who exercised advanced academic abilities in their translation work. The Bible is written with layers of complexity which require great intellectual efforts.
It is, however, altogether false to suggest that one must study the Scripture in a formal university or college in order to properly learn the Bible or theology. The “Jews marveled” at the teachings of Jesus questioning, “How does this Man know letters, having never studied?” (Jn. 7:15-16). His contemporaries erroneously assumed that one must be formally taught to have authoritative knowledge. A similar mistake was committed by Annas the high priest and the Jewish council in how they perceived Peter and John. “Now when they saw the boldness of Peter and John, and perceived that they were unlearned and ignorant men, they marvelled; and they took knowledge of them, that they had been with Jesus” (Ac. 4:13).
There are many who have attained stunning academic knowledge of the Scripture, yet have never known God ... and, worse yet, are not known of God (Mt. 7:23; 25:12; Lk. 13:24-28; Jn. 8:42-47). The apostle Paul, who taught many deep mysteries, warned, “Knowledge puffeth up, but charity edifieth” (1Co. 8:1). Head knowledge is important and should be encouraged, but heart knowledge is far more important. Head knowledge alone may lead to an eternity of damnation. Regretfully, most of the “academic” teachers of the Bible destroy faith by teaching the Bible as only a human composition.
The acedemic quality of Balancing the Sword made it suitable for the University of South Florida as a senior level literature course.
See academic vocabulary and Bible study.
Academic Improvement Plan (AIP)
"This is a written plan that parents and teachers develop together when a child is having trouble keeping up with the skills required at his grade level" (source: FL Dept. of Education).
“An Academic Improvement Plan (AIP) will be developed for all students in grades K-8 who are not meeting State and District Levels of Proficiency. AIP’s focus learning resources on identified students’ targeted learning deficiencies. Parents are a vital aspect in the development and implementation of the AIP. They will be invited to a conference to discuss the plan and provide input. Intensive remediation in the areas of concern will begin immediately. More specific information related to AIP’s can be found in FAUS’ Pupil Progression Plan (Florida Atlantic University Schools Pupil Progression Plan)" (source: FL Atlantic University).
academic vocabulary
An academic vocabulary is the informal collection of specialized words or phrases that are commonly used within a particular field of study but often unknown or unused by those outside that academic field. The fields of theology, literature, and philosophy (among others) possess academic vocabularies often used by those who discuss the Scripture. In the realm of theology, our academic vocabulary includes words like Christology, pneumatology, soteriology, ecclesiology, eschatology, and typology.
Academic vocabularies inevitably develop in every school of study. However, sometimes academic vocabularies make a subject unnecessarily complicated to newcomers. Those who wish to impress you with their knowledge will frequently use these academic words; although, common words are just as suitable.
An academic vocabulary may use common words with a specialized meaning. For example, the word saved generically means “rescued” or “secured.” However, Christians typically use the word saved to speak of someone who is saved by the blood of Christ from God’s eternal wrath which awaits all who are lost or damned under their sin.
“But God demonstrates His own love toward us, in that while we were still sinners, Christ died for us. Much more then, having now been justified by His blood, we shall be saved from wrath through Him. For if when we were enemies we were reconciled to God through the death of His Son, much more, having been reconciled, we shall be saved by His life” (Ro. 5:8-10).
The Bible includes many specialized words (e.g., atonement), but the biblical writers largely wrote for the benefit of the average person. Following suit, Balancing the Sword was written for the average person.
Also see academic, vocabulary, and content area vocabulary.
Acts
Acts (a.k.a., The Acts of the Apostles) is the fifth book of the New Testament. Acts was written to Theophilus (Ac. 1:1) and is a continuation of the Gospel of Luke (Lk. 1:3). Acts is the last history book in the Bible. It begins with the final works and words of Jesus and His ascension. The Acts of the Apostles primarily tells of the activities of the apostles, especially Peter and Paul. Acts provides us with an understanding of the struggles and blessings of the early church as it grew from about 120 believers (Ac. 1:15) to thousands upon thousands of believers sprinkled throughout the known world. Please pay attention to how the church responded to the persecution. The majority of the books following Acts can be inserted somewhere in the events of this book. The travels of Peter and Paul documented in Acts give some understanding of when the apostolic letters were written. Acts also records other experiences that the apostles had with various churches—some churches who received epistles and some who did not. The book of Acts closes with Paul living in Rome as a privileged prisoner “[p]reaching the kingdom of God, and teaching those things which concern the Lord Jesus Christ, with all confidence, no man forbidding him” (Ac. 28:31). This would indicate an mid-century date.
alliteration An alliteration (a.k.a., initial rhyme or head rhyme) is a literary device which combines a series of words beginning with the same letter or letters (often consonants) which creates a more artistic sound when read aloud. An example would be, An alliteration aligns allied annunciations. The alliterations of the Bible are only noticed if reading from the original Hebrew or Greek. The harmonious sounds that we find in the English are unlikely reflecting alliterations found in the original languages. According to Dr. E. W. Bullinger, "The song of Deborah, in Judges 5, abounds with examples of Homœopropheron [i.e., alliteration], which add great fire and force and beauty to the original" (source: London; New York : Eyre & Spottiswoode; E. & J. B. Young & Co., 1898, S. 171).
almanac “a book published every year that contains facts and information, esp. tables showing the days, weeks, and months, important holidays, and times when the sun and moon rise, or a book containing facts and information about a particular subject” (source: dictionary.cambridge.org) An almanac of Jerusalem would show the amount of daylight, rainfall, snow, etc. that Jesus and His apostles may have experienced when He was alive on given feast days, such as Passover.
analysis
The conclusion reached by analyzing the Scripture. One can only develop a skillful analysis by skillfully analyzing what we read. An analysis can be given orally or in writing. An analysis might emphasize a particular element, such as literary style, cultural context, translation accuracy, authorship, etc. A quality commentary is an analysis of the Bible which typically emphasis author’s intent and translation challenges. What if we fail to develop an accurate analysis of the biblical books? History has proven at times that a reckless analysis of the Bible can lead to devastating consequences which destroys faith and justifies evil behavior in the name of God. The purpose of Balancing the Sword is to help readers form an accurate and balanced analysis of the entire Bible.
analyze
To carefully and systematically examine primary and secondary parts of a writing by various study techniques, including but not limited to word studies, diagraming, background research, probing considerations from various angles, and comparisons to other related passages or similar writings. Before analyzing a book or chapter of Scripture in detail, begin with attentively reading through the entire section. The purpose of analyzing is to form an accurate analysis.
Every person is called to carefully analyze the Scripture. Paul instructed Timothy to develop a skillful analysis of Holy Writ when the apostle Paul wrote, “Study to shew thyself approved unto God, a workman that needeth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of truth” (2Ti. 2:15). Balancing the Sword includes almost 54,000 cross references to aid readers in analyzing the Bible with fair and broad consideration of how each biblical book corresponds to other passages.
ancient antiquity
Ancient antiquity spans from the beginning of recorded time until the time of classical history beginning around 800 BC.
Loosely, the books of Genesis to 2 Chronicles, Job to Song of Solomon focus upon ancient antiquity. However, references to "ancient Jewish," "ancient Israel," "ancient Israelite," etc. found in the humanities courses for biblical studies on this Balancing the Sword website should be interpreted to included all Old Testament books and all history prior to approximately 400 BC.
antagonist
The antagonist, in contrast to the protagonist, is the character who plays the primary villain. The antagonist, instead of being an individual, can be an opposing group or opposing force (e.g., “the spirit of the world” [1Co. 2:12; cf., Eph. 2:2]). A narrative cannot have an agonist (either protagonist or antagonist) without an agony or a conflict. From a literary perspective, the ultimate antagonist in the Bible is Satan. Those who afflicted the weak were often called "sons of Belial" (or the like) in the King James Version (Dt. 13:13; Jdg. 19:22; 1Sa. 2:12).
The Bible portrays humans with realism. The bad guy was not always presented clearly marked as though dressed in black. To the contrary, Jesus warned, “Beware of false prophets, which come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves” (Mt. 7:15). The apostle Paul amplified that even “Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light” and some of his deceitful workers were “transformed as the ministers of righteousness” (2Co. 11:13-15).
Some of the antagonists of the Bible were antivillains, figures who lacked traditional villainous qualities or whose behavior was admirable at times. An example of an antivillain was Joab the son of Zeruiah and the commanding general over King David's armies. Joab was underhanded, murderous, and ultimately put to death as a criminal, but Joab had previously led Israel to victory against the enemies of God, advised David against sinfully numbering Israel, and saved David's life. The Pharisees—Jesus’ most constant enemies—were upstanding citizens who promoted righteousness and were given to acute outward adherence to the Mosaic Law (Mt. 5:20; 23:3, 5, 14, 23, 29). Further, those who sought righteousness by mere self-imposed good deeds were condemned. “For they being ignorant of God's righteousness, and going about to establish their own righteousness, have not submitted themselves unto the righteousness of God” (Ro. 10:3; cf., Ro. 9:30-32; Php. 3:9). Thus, the moralist could be the antagonist.
Solomon in Proverbs and the apostle John in his epistles defined the world in simple terms of black or white, wise or foolish, righteous or wicked, loving or hateful, etc. The individuals described in Scripture were not always easy to classify, especially in the eyes of their contemporaries. Antivillains and antiheroes describe the more complex characters (1) who do good for evil motives (e.g., pray to be seen of men [Mk. 12:40; Mt. 23:5]) or (2) who do bad for good motives (e.g., lie to save a life [Ex. 1:15-21; Jos. 2:1-8]).
Examples of antagonists in the Bible include
antiquity
An indefinite segment of time or era which long preceded our own or dates to a former time long before the author’s life who is using the word. For example, Tyre is first mentioned in the Bible in Joshua 19:29 where it is called "the strong city." Joshua was born in Moses’ lifetime. Hundreds of years later, Isaiah gave his prophecy against Tyre identifying it as the "joyous city, whose antiquity is of ancient days" (Isa. 23:7). We speak of biblical characters as the heroes and villains of antiquity.
Also see ancient antiquity and classical antiquity as eras of historical study.
apocalyptic literature Apocalyptic literature are writings which foretell or prophesy of final destruction or the catastrophic ending of the world. Revelation, which is also known as the Apocalypse, is the most popular book in the Bible which is largely considered apocalyptic literature. Other chapters which are frequently placed into this classification of biblical literature are Joel 3 and Matthew 24.
Apocrypha
The word apocrypha is used as a common noun and as a proper noun. The word means “hidden” and is used to describe books that have dubious authorship or questionable authority or accuracy. In this regard, there are books which were written before and after the birth of Christ which are considered apocryphal.
Formally, as a proper noun, the Apocrypha may also have more than one definition but is generally considered books found in the Septuagint and the Catholic canon of the Old Testament but are not found in the Hebrew Masoretic Text (MT) of the Tanakh nor in the Protestant canon of the Old Testament. The following books were included in the 1611 King James Version as the Apocrypha:
Three of the apocryphal books in the 1611 KJV were not included in the Catholic deuterocanonical books received by the Council of Trent:
The Apocrypha of the Greek Orthodox Bible is slightly different than those of the Roman Catholic Church. The 1st century Hebrew-speaking Jews and the Protestants deem several of the apocryphal inclusions as interpolations:
Balancing the Sword covers all sixty-six books of the Protestant Bible. Click for the BTS table of contents for volume 1 and volume 2.
author's background knowledge
An author’s background knowledge is the sum total of his knowledge which he brings to his writing experience. An author’s experiential knowledge is often subtly evident in his writing.
For example, David was a shepherd in his youth (1Sa. 16:11). His background knowledge as a shepherd is evident throughout the Twenty-third Psalm which heavily draws upon the imagery of a shepherd with his sheep. Another display of an author’s background knowledge is found in the Gospel of Luke. "Luke, the beloved physician," spoke of Christ as a physician (Col. 4:14; Lk. 4:23; 5:31) and wrote of healing the sick substantially more than the other gospel writers.
author's intent See author’s purpose.
author's point of view
The author’s point of view is his feeling, opinion, or belief about his topic. The author's point of view should not be confused with the narrator's point of view. The author is the man or woman who composed the words. The writer may have written from a personal perspective or from an alternative narrator's point of view.
The writer's point of view may be evident in the writing's tone, the evidence of the author's feelings. The author’s purpose is typically inseparable from his point of view. Persuasive arguments plainly state or easily imply the author’s point of view. This is true for most of the biblical writers. They were for God and righteousness; they were against wickedness. Luke began his gospel account of Jesus Christ acknowledging that he was setting “forth ... those things which are most surely believed among us” (Lk. 1:1). Thus, Luke confesses that his point of view was one of faith in Jesus Christ as the Son of God. However, the writer of Judges, like other history books of the Bible, reports the disturbing facts of life in Israel (e.g., Jdg. 19:1-30) without giving personal commentary to his feelings nor opinions through the tone.
It is beneficial to know an author’s bias for or against his subject. Knowing the author’s point of view allows us to more accurately determine the fairness with which the author addressed the subject. If the author has no preference for or against his subject, we account the author as neutral or unbiased. However, it should be acknowledged that author’s rarely possess pure neutrality on any subject, yet authors frequently wish to feign themselves as impartial researchers merely reporting the facts. An author’s open statement of favor or disfavor demonstrates his honesty with his audience.
One fascinating aspect of author’s point of view is how the writers of the Bible depicted themselves. People have an innate desire to make themselves look good. Yet, the biblical writers frequently tell of their most shameful mistakes. A writer’s willingness to give accurate criticism of the subject that he favors builds his credibility.
My author's point of view regarding Balancing the Sword is that the Bible is inspired by God. Learn more under Allen B. Wolfe's Theology.
See the following links to learn more:
author's purpose
The author’s purpose (a.k.a., author’s intent) is his reason for writing. What is the author attempting to achieve by writing? Some write to preserve history, to entertain, to educate, or to persuade. Some write not for their audience but for themselves. The author’s purpose may be a combination of motives.
An author's purpose may intertwine with complex internal motives such as pride, greed, or cathartic reasons, especially those who journal or author poetry or lyrics. However, an author's internal motivation is not the primary focus of author's purpose. For example, an author may be under contract with a university which requires that he publish research papers each semester. The professor’s internal motive may be to retain his professorship. However, his author’s purpose may be to document statistical data on decomposition rates for the purpose of aiding policymakers in legislating better laws for waste disposal. Therefore, his internal motive is job security while his author's intent is educational.
How do we determine the author’s intent? Clues may be evident in the writing's tone or the author’s point of view, as the author’s point of view is often tied to his purpose for writing. The reader may have to infer an author’s objective. The style of writing may be an indicator, but most often one must extract the author’s purpose from what is written, not how it is written. If a work is well composed and achieves its aim, the original goal for writing should be easily determinable. In a persuasive essay, the author’s purpose may be abundantly clear. The apostle John stated his author’s intent in the close of his gospel unambiguously. “But these are written, that ye might believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; and that believing ye might have life through his name” (Jn. 20:31). A few other examples for why Scripture was written include that people could be taught the Law (Ex. 24:12), that we could learn and receive hope (Ro. 15:4), and that the readers could know imminent future events (Rev. 1:1).
My motive for writing Balancing the Sword was to aid the average Christian in gaining a comprehensive working knowledge of the entire Bible. I've explained more of my author's purpose in an on-line article entitled, The Spark: How did this all begin?.
See tone to learn more.
author's style
An author’s style is his distinct literary manner that makes his expression of content unique from other authors. Style gives form to substance. An author’s style determines the techniques that he will employ to compose his content (i.e., his ideas, opinions, facts, etc.).
What are the particular components that define an author’s style? An author’s style is characterized by numerous factors including but not limited to
There are about forty authors in the Bible. Thus, there are many distinguishable writing styles in the sixty-six scriptural books. An author may use different styles when targeting different readers or when writing different compositional forms. For example,
The apostle John wrote five biblical books in three forms. John wrote one gospel, three epistles, and one prophecy: the Gospel of John, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, and Revelation. John used different literary components. Likewise, Solomon wrote three books: Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon. Proverbs and Ecclesiastes have similarities, but Song of Solomon manifests a unique author’s style.
The various translations of the Bible also illustrate stylistic differences and influence our perception of the original styles of the biblical writers. Notices the stylistic variations in three translations of John 14:1.
My authoring style is simple vocabulary, efficient sentence structures, technical punctuation, question and answer format, and overall neutral tone. Balancing the Sword was designed to emphasis the styles of the biblical authors, not compete with nor distract from the books of the Bible.
background knowledge See author's background knowledge or reader's background knowledge.
benchmark "A statement within the Sunshine State Standards that describes what students at a certain grade level should know and be able to do. More detailed than a strand or standard" (source: Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test [FCAT] 8.0 Glossary). “Statements of major milestones for learning for each of the Sunshine State Standards. For the academic subject areas, benchmarks are stated at four grade level clusters: Prekindergarten to Grade 2, Grades 3-5, Grades 6-8, and Grades 9-12. For special diploma standards, benchmarks are stated at three levels of proficiency: Independent, Supported, and Participatory” (source: Florida State University: Center for Performance Technology).
Bible study
Bible study, when used as legal or educational academic vocabulary, divides into two major classifications: (1) devotional study and (2) academic study. These special distinctions crystallized for the academic world through the U.S. Supreme Court case Abington School District v. Schempp 374 U.S. 203 (1963). The Court ruled 8 to 1 that school-sponsored Bible reading in public schools is unconstitutional. Prior to 1963, Pennsylvania and some other states required publicly educated students to regularly hear portions of the Bible read and to recite the Lord's Prayer. The left-leaning Court, contrary to all of America's history since 1607, ruled that public schools were permitted to fund academic study of the Bible, but were not permitted to fund devotional study of the Bible. The judges labored through their opinions to explain the perceived difference. The following chart offers overly simplified differences that have artificially developed between devotional study and academic study.
Can the Bible be studied objectively? Judge Stewart, in his dissenting opinion, observed that if schools taught the Bible apart from or devoid of faith, then government schools would be merely adopting an alternative religious view ... "a religion of secularism." In truth, all people see every subject theistically or atheistically. Theists consider every pebble as originating from the Creator; atheists consider every pebble as originating from nothing.
Another problem with the above distinctions is that those who study the Bible devotionally can and should study the Bible academically and vice-versa. Jesus commanded: “And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart [i.e., devotional reading], and with all thy soul [i.e., being], and with all thy mind [i.e., academic reading], and with all thy strength [i.e., practical doing]: this is the first commandment” (Mk. 12:30).
The Court's 1963 ruling and subsequent rulings have clarified that homeschooling parents and Christian schools are free to teach the Bible both academically and devotionally. Likewise, in every educational setting, students are free to study the Bible for both academic and devotional benefits. The 1963 ruling pertained to government funded schools, books, administrators, and teachers---not students.
The questions in Balancing the Sword narrowly focus upon the words of the Bible. Interpretations and application of the Text are left for individuals, parents, pastors, and teachers. The quotes at the bottom of the pages extol faith and confidence, but are also actual quotes (without commentary) from historical figures. Balancing the Sword fosters rigorous academic familiarity while harmonizing with devotional intent.
biblical literature
biblical narrative A biblical narrative is both a type of narrative and a reference to certain passages or books of the Bible. Biblical narratives are historical narratives with more emphasis on information, not entertaining drama. The first seventeen books of the Old Testament (i.e., Genesis to Esther) are basically narratives. The poetic and prophetic books are occasionally interlaced into these seventeen books (e.g., the statutes in Exodus). Narratives are also interlaced into the poetic books and the prophets (e.g., Jer. 39:1-18). Job is considered a poetic books, but is also a narrative. Likewise, Daniel and Jonah are considered prophetic books, but are also narratives. The first five books of the New Testament (i.e., the gospels and Acts) are classified as narratives; although, the events in the gospels are not always presented in chronological order.
canon
There are several uses of the word canon. In the humanities courses of the Bible, canon refers to the accepted books (or, writings) of the Bible. The Bible includes sixty-six books: thirty-nine books of the Old Testament and twenty-seven books of the New Testament. The Jewish canon includes twenty-two books which are a perfect match with the thirty-nine books of the Protestant Old Testament.
Click here for a listing of the books of the Bible with abbreviations as found in the Table of Contents of Balancing the Sword (Vol. 1). The Balancing the Sword books cover all sixty-six books within the universal Christian canon.
Generically, a canon is an accepted collection of work by an author. For example, the prophet Jeremiah gave numerous prophecies (at various times and to different individuals) which were combined into one canon or book named Jeremiah.
See Apocrypha or deuterocanonical as related topics.
canonical
In the study of the Bible as a humanities course, canonical means that which is included in or pertains to the official canon of Scripture.
Canonical Gospels
The Canonical Gospels are the four gospel accounts accepted into the sacred canon of Scripture: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Three of the four gospel accounts form the Synoptic Gospels.
canonization
Regarding the study of the Bible as a humanities course, canonization refers to the process by which the biblical writings, which were written over some 1,600 years, were tested and accepted into the sacred canon of Scripture. Writings excluded from the canon were deemed common or forgeries.
canonize
In the study of the Bible as a humanities course, the word canonize describes the process of accepting a writing into the official canon or collection of the Bible.
character's point of view
The character's point of view is the unique perspective that a character possesses toward the story. Highly developed characters possess feelings and ideas that are evident to the reader. The words of the characters within a story may or may not be trustworthy. Some characters are wise and righteous; others are foolish or unrighteous. Some characters view the story world through their youth or ethnicity and others through their achievements or religion. Almost all characters in a narrative hold a limited point of view. That is, characters are not fully self-conscious and cannot know the private actions, personal feelings, and internal thoughts of other characters. (NOTE: God the Father and Jesus Christ know the hearts of all men [2Ch. 6:30; Mt. 9:4; Mk. 2:8; Lk. 16:15; Jn. 1:42, 46; 2:25; 5:42; 6:64; 16:30; 21:17; Ac. 1:24; Heb. 4:12-13; Rev. 2:23]. Prophets were granted unnatural foreknowledge.)
A character's point of view should not be confused with the author's point of view or the narrator's point of view. A story narrated from the first-person point of view tell the story to the reader through the prism of a character. An author may express his thoughts or opposing thoughts through the characters in the story.
The Bible gives voice to Satan and to countless wicked persons who were given as examples of deception and of evil. For example, Lot's house was surrounded by sodomites who desired to rape his two male, angelic visitors. The sodomites demanded that Lot give them the visitors. Lot made a wicked offer: "See now, I have two daughters who have not known a man; please, let me bring them out to you, and you may do to them as you wish; only do nothing to these men, since this is the reason they have come under the shadow of my roof" (Ge. 19:8). The reader knows that Lot's willingness to surrender his daughters to ravenous men was against God's will by the actions of His angelic messengers.
To further illustrate, Job's wife gave him evil advice in Job 2:9: "Then his wife said to him, 'Do you still hold fast to your integrity? Curse God and die!'" The reader is expected to know that her voice contradicted one of the main lessons of the book, namely, faithfulness.
See the following links to learn more:
characters (literary)
The characters are the individuals, groups, or personified non-humans who comprise one of the main elements of literature. The interaction of the characters within the setting unfolds the plot. Characters provide dialogue and actions. Well developed characters demonstrate emotions, feelings, motives, ethical convictions, ideas, knowledge, personality, age, physical characteristics, physical skills, family relationships, social position, economic position, history, etc. Collectively, the aforementioned qualities create the character's point of view.
In the biblical books, we are introduced to hundreds of chief characters (or, primary, main, or lead characters) and secondary characters (or, supporting characters). Students of the Bible can distinguish the main characters from the secondary characters by identifying whether a particular character would materially alter the narrative if omitted. The main characters receive primary attention, that is, many words are from the main characters or about the main characters. One notable quality of scriptural characters is their realistic portrayal of morality. The beloved principle figures, such as Abraham, Moses, David, Peter, and Paul, demonstrate imperfections and limitations. We read of their struggles to choose between good and evil.
The static characters of the Bible are presented and remain unchanged; the dynamic characters of the Bible change in awareness, motivation, morality, physicality, etc. For example, Matthew and Luke introduce Jesus Christ as a baby. As a child, we read that Jesus "grew, and waxed strong in spirit" (Lk. 2:40). "And Jesus increased in wisdom and stature, and in favour with God and man" (Lk. 2:52). However, Jesus is largely portrayed as a static character during His three-year ministry.
The men, women, nations, and even angels and demons of Scripture are all presented as nonfictional characters, apart from rare exceptions, such as the spirit who purportedly visited Eliphaz in the night (Job 4:15). Although some readers have questioned whether Adam and Eve existed, we are given their genealogical records all the way to Jesus (Lk. 3:23-38). Thus, biblical characters are substantiated with more definition than fictional figures of mythology.
See protagonist and antagonist.
classical antiquity
Classical antiquity spans from the end of ancient antiquity at around 800 BC until around AD 500 with the decline of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle-Ages.
Loosely, the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, all the Old Testament prophets (viz., Isaiah to Malachi), and all New Testament books were written during the time of classical history. However, references to "ancient Jewish," "ancient Israel," "ancient Israelite," etc. found in the humanities courses for biblical studies on this Balancing the Sword website should be interpreted to included all Old Testament books and all history prior to approximately 400 BC.
close reading
Close reading is a reading method by which the reader annotates the text with his own observations and speculations. More specifically, close reading may incorporate virtually all reading strategies (pre-reading, during-reading, and post-reading strategies) to mark the text to amass in-depth understanding. Close reading requires a reader to become an active reader (in contrast to a passive reader) by engaging his writing skills while reading. The purpose of close reading is to consider every word, phrase, and structure along with all that is known about the author and his intended audience in order to unearth the most accurate and complete interpretation of the writing.
Implementation Recommendations:
Close reading skills are expected among the Common Core State Standards in language arts for all students. Furthermore, close reading strategies are expected by the College Board in preparation for AP courses, the SAT, and other college-level challenges.
Exceeding all other books in the world, the Bible has been the subject of close reading methods due to the study efforts of commentators, pastors, and average Christians. In a sense, close reading is required of Christians. Several Hebrew words used by biblical writers were translated as meditate in the King James Version. Two of these words are siyach (see'-akh) and hagah (daw-gaw'). Both of these Hebrew words mean or were also translated in English as muse, ponder, commune, or study. Interestingly, these same Hebrew words for mediate can also be translated as converse or speak. Historic students of the Scripture were to ponder and to converse which meant that they were active readers. The essence of meditating with conversing was the near equivalent of close reading with annotating.
Balancing the Sword is designed to help the reader discover details in the Bible that otherwise might be overlooked. BTS changes all passive readers into active readers.
Common Core State Standards
The United States has 50 state governments and over 3,000 county or county-equivalent governments. Each has an education department. The federal government also has an education department. The benefits of diversity are competition, freedom, and innovation. The detractions of diversity are that some counties and states set lower standards and that student achievement levels vary substantially. In response, the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) "were developed in collaboration with teachers, school administrators, and experts, to provide a clear and consistent framework to prepare our children for college and the workforce." The Common Core also serve as a helpful benchmark for homeschooling parent.
"The Common Core State Standards provide a consistent, clear understanding of what students are expected to learn, so teachers and parents know what they need to do to help them. The standards are designed to be robust and relevant to the real world, reflecting the knowledge and skills that our young people need for success in college and careers. With American students fully prepared for the future, our communities will be best positioned to compete successfully in the global economy," according to CoreStandards.org.
The CCSS expect all students to have some basic knowledge of the Bible. By the seventh grade, all students are expected to recognize and to properly interpret biblical figures of speech (e.g., biblical allusions) used in modern writings (CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.7.5a). This standard presupposes that students can recognize biblical allusions. By the eighth grade, all students are expected to be able to "[a]nalyze how a modern work of fiction draws on themes, patterns of events, or character types from ... religious works such as the Bible, including describing how the material is rendered new" (CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.8.9 and CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.8.9a). This standard presumes that students are familiar with themes, patterns of events, and characters in the Bible. By the ninth and tenth grades, all students are expected to be able to analyze how an author draws on and transforms source material in a specific work (e.g., "a theme or topic from Ovid or the Bible") (CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.9-10.9 and CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.9-10.9a).
Balancing the Sword is designed to impart to students knowledge of the characters, themes, vocabulary, figures of speech, and plots found in the Bible. Likewise, BTS teaches students how to carefully read complex writings to answer text-dependent questions and to use close reading strategies, as directed by the CCSS.
content area vocabulary
Content area vocabulary is vocabulary which should be expected within a certain discipline of study (or, content areas) and/or a certain grade level. (Typical school content areas are reading, writing, history, mathematics, and science.) Students are expected to learn new content area vocabulary in each grade. Content area vocabulary is often a subset of an academic vocabulary.
Also see high frequency content area vocabulary.
contextual analysis
Contextual analysis is a method of deriving the meaning of an unknown word from the surrounding context. Unlike graphophonic analysis and morphemic analysis, which both develop meaning about a word from the word in question, contextual analysis focuses on observing context clues found before and after the unknown word. Contextual analysis uses the semantic cueing system, but contextual analysis is broader because contextual analysis also uses other cueing systems, including syntactic cueing, picture cueing, and typographic cueing. Clues found within the context include
See cueing systems.
cueing systems
Cueing systems in language arts refers to the various systems or techniques employed by readers to determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Cueing systems are an important part of analyzing the words of the Bible. Among these systems are the four language cueing systems, morphemic cueing system, textual cueing system, typographic cueing system, and picture cueing system. The four language cueing systems are the graphophonic cueing system, the syntactic cueing system, the semantic cueing system, and the pragmatic cueing system. Skillful readers have proficiency in all cueing systems. Improving your use of the cueing systems will deepen your insights into the Bible.
deuterocanonical
The prefix deuter- means second. Therefore, deuterocanonical is an adjective describing a class of secondary Old Testament books which were rejected from the Jewish canon and from the Protestant Bible. The Apocrypha is comprised of deuterocanonical books.
double entendre
A double entendre is an expression in which more than one interpretation or meaning is conveyed. The author willfully gives one statement to convey two messages to his mixed audience knowing that some will catch only one meaning while others will catch two meanings based upon their individual abilities to hear or detect multiple meanings. A double entendre is often used as a tool to hide an offensive meaning from one class of hearers. The double entendre is fully understood to those who have mature understanding of the author's intent and vocabulary, an understanding which might develop with study or age.
An example of a double entendre is when Jesus told His disciples to beware of the leaven of the Pharisees. The apostles missed the true meaning held in the symbolism of leaven (meaning corrupt teaching) because they defaulted to the ordinary meaning of leaven used in bread.
"Then Jesus said unto them, Take heed and beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and of the Sadducees. And they reasoned among themselves, saying, It is because we have taken no bread. Which when Jesus perceived, he said unto them, O ye of little faith, why reason ye among yourselves, because ye have brought no bread? Do ye not yet understand, neither remember the five loaves of the five thousand, and how many baskets ye took up? Neither the seven loaves of the four thousand, and how many baskets ye took up? How is it that ye do not understand that I spake it not to you concerning bread, that ye should beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and of the Sadducees? Then understood they how that he bade them not beware of the leaven of bread, but of the doctrine of the Pharisees and of the Sadducees" (Mt. 16:6-12, KJV with italics added).
Another example of a double entendre is Jesus' use of "temple" in John 2:19-22 as a reference to His body.
The title Balancing the Sword is a double entendre in that the words within the title have multiple meanings. The books are perfectly distributed or balanced in scope and content. Likewise, the word balance means to have properly distributed understanding of all subjects, including the seemingly contrary topics.
during-reading strategies
During-reading strategies are active reading strategies implemented while reading a book. During-reading strategies are composed of concurrent assignments or activities that will slow the reading process, but will diminish the likelihood that reading does not become a meaningless tasks devoid of comprehension.
Below are some during-reading strategies.
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See pre-reading strategies and post-reading strategies and close reading to learn more.
elements of literature
Elements of literature are the core components which distinquish one literary work from another, excluding the author and the reader. The major elements of literature include the following:
figure of speech
A figure of speech is a literary tool used by an author or rhetorical tool used by speaker to clarify the meaning of a subject by its association to a secondary but familiar element (i.e., a person, place, thing, idea, action, or condition of existence). The familiar element is the "figure" which possesses some similarities or corresponding realities to the main subject. Figures of speech include similes, metaphors, and analogies. The use of similes, metaphors, and analogies forms figurative language.
Figures of speech also include allusions, euphemism, irony, hyperbole, oxymoron, paradox, personification, puns, etc.
Unwittingly, the average person uses figures of speech in daily conversation. As a collection of holy writings designed to impact all people, the Bible is full of figures of speech.
first century See 1st century.
geographical setting
Geographical or physical setting is an aspect of setting that pertains to where events occur and where characters live and interact. A geographical setting is a place in space. Literary characters could see and touch their geographical settings. The locale could be either realistically or theoretically identified on a map. Geographical settings might be described as specific locations:
The biblical books are set in north Africa, south-east Europe, and mostly the countries of the Near-East.
See setting, historical setting, and social setting to learn more.
graphophonic cueing system
The graphophonic cueing system is one of the main four language cueing systems. This technique is also known as the phonic cueing system or the phonological cueing system. The graphophonic cueing system is based upon analyzing letters and phonemes. A phoneme is an irreducible phonetic unit corresponding to a particular sound. The prefix grapho- means writing. The word phonic means of or relating to sound. Graphophonic analysis studies the letter-sound relationships within a word. The sounds often hint towards a certain meaning.
We sound out words by their parts using graphophonic techniques. A student may not recognize a word when written, but instantly knows a word's definition when the word is heard or successfully pronounced. This is the difference between a person's oral vocabulary versus his reading vocabulary. (See vocabulary for more.)
There are two notable weaknesses to inferring meaning based upon sound alone: pronunciation and homophones. The English language is very flexible and dialects morph over time and by geography. As a result, the way people pronounce words or combine letters is irregular. Secondly, homophones are words which sound the same yet have different meanings (wear vs. where).
Graphophonic cueing determines the possible meaning of a word based upon the phonetic sounds within the word. For example, consider the word psalmist in the King James version of 2 Samuel 23:1: "Now these be the last words of David. David the son of Jesse said, and the man who was raised up on high, the anointed of the God of Jacob, and the sweet psalmist of Israel, said...." Many readers know that the letter p is silent when beginning a word and followed by the letter s. Furthermore, the average reader knows that the letter a is soft when not followed by a vowel. The suffix -ist is pronounced as it appears. Thus, the word psalmist is pronounced as sälm-ist. The sound sälm follows the word psalm, which is a short lyrical poem. This suffix -ist follows nouns describing someone of reputation, skill, or loyalty to a particular belief, ability, custom, or knowledge (e.g., evangelist, biblicist, monotheist, religionist, spiritualist, or canonist). A psalmist is one who is skilled in lyrical poetry. However, graphophonic cues are most evident with onomatopoeias (e.g., slap, crash, zip, tick tock, knock-knock, buzz, hiss, tweet, bark, roar, zoom, etc.) which create a rhetorical effect denoting the meaning of the word when pronounced.
See cueing systems.
high frequency content area vocabulary
The high frequency content area vocabulary (or, high frequency vocabulary) is the content area vocabulary words which appear frequently in a text for a specific subject and/or grade. Text books designed to teach reading skills increase the use of content area vocabulary words to build familiarity. Biblical books have high frequency content area vocabulary which help to clarify the author’s theme. High frequency words vary among biblical books, biblical genres, and biblical eras. To illustrate, in the King James Version of 1 John, we find
Among the above words, most have specific meanings to Scripture. This list would be distinctly different than the words found in 1 Kings.
historical setting
Historical setting is an aspect of setting that pertains to when events occur and when characters live or interact. A historical setting is a point in time. Literary characters cannot see nor touch their historical setting because historical setting pertains to time which is intangible, but all human actions must occur in time. Historical settings might be past, present, or future. Historical settings might be described as specific spans or moments in time:
The Old Testament books are set between approximately 6,000 BC to 400 BC (a span of history mostly considered ancient antiquity). The New Testament books are set between approximately AD 30 to AD 100 (a span of history completely considered classical antiquity).
Westerners along with most of the world uses the Julian calendar system developed in AD 525 by Dionysius Exiguus. We represent years in relation to the presumed birth date of Jesus Christ. Years prior to Christ's birth are indicated as Before Christ (BC); years subsequent to Christ's birth are indicated as Anno Domini (AD).
In contrast, the Hebrew calendar reset to zero with their exodus from Egyptian slavery. God commanded His people: "This month shall be unto you the beginning of months: it shall be the first month of the year to you" (Ex. 12:2; cf., Jdg. 11:26; 1Ki. 6:1).
Most frequently, most biblical writers indicated time relative to the reign of the dominate king of the day: "In the eighteenth year of Nebuchadrezzar" (Jer. 52:29). Time was also measured relative to major events: "in the days of Uzziah king of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash king of Israel, two years before the earthquake" (Am. 1:1). The dating of the prophetic books (viz., Isaiah to Malachi) often utilizes cross referencing the placement of the prophet or key events in the historical books of 1 Kings, 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. Searching for the word year in a concordance will locate most historical markers.
See setting, geographical setting, and social setting to learn more.
intent of the author See author’s purpose.
Israelite
An Israelite is a descendent of Israel (a.k.a., Jacob) (Ge. 32:28). “And the children of Israel were fruitful, and increased abundantly, and multiplied ...; and the land was filled with them” while in Egypt (Ex. 1:1-7). The Israelites were chosen from among the descendants of Abraham and Isaac. They are the only nation with whom God made a covenant. “And the LORD hath avouched thee this day to be his peculiar people, as he hath promised thee, and that thou shouldest keep all his commandments; And to make thee high above all nations which he hath made, in praise, and in name, and in honour; and that thou mayest be an holy people unto the LORD thy God, as he hath spoken” (Dt. 26:18-19). Israel was also the only nation to received divinely composed laws. “And what nation is there so great, that hath statutes and judgments so righteous as all this law, which I set before you this day?” (Dt. 4:8). Yet, “the LORD said unto Moses, Behold, thou shalt sleep with thy fathers; and this people will rise up, and go a whoring after the gods ... and will forsake me, and break my covenant which I have made with them” (Dt. 31:16). According to Stephen, the prophecy was fulfilled. “Ye stiffnecked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, ye do always resist the Holy Ghost: as your fathers did, so do ye. Which of the prophets have not your fathers persecuted? and they have slain them which shewed before of the coming of the Just One; of whom ye have been now the betrayers and murderers” (Ac. 7:51-52).
The Israelites are the primary focus of the Old Testament. Jesus Christ and the original apostles were Israelites. The Israelites were divided into twelve tribes. The Israelites were also called Hebrews and Jews.
Also see non-Israelite.
literature
The Bible has many passages that are narratives. See biblical narrative.
biblical literature
For my needs, see http://www.balancingthesword.com/Homeschool/Credit/Humanities-Introduction-to-the-Bible-Part-1.asp .
http://www.balancingthesword.com/Study_Support/GlossaryWord.asp?Word=biblical literature
"elements of literature, including characters, plot, setting, tone, point of view, and theme."
Terms to incorporate:
Western literature
literature: "1. writings in which expression and form, in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest, are characteristic or essential features, as poetry, novels, history, biography, and essays.; 2. the entire body of writings of a specific language, period, people, etc.: the literature of England." (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/literature)
Lord’s Prayer, The
The Lord’s Prayer, also known as the Model Prayer, is a prayer fashioned by Jesus Christ which He taught to His disciples so that they could learn how to pray. The Lord’s Prayer is found in Matthew 6:9-15 and Luke 11:2-4. You will notice that the account given by Matthew differs slightly from Luke’s account.
"Our Father which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil: For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever. Amen." (Mt. 6:9-15, KJV).
"Our Father which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, as in heaven, so in earth. Give us day by day our daily bread. And forgive us our sins; for we also forgive every one that is indebted to us. And lead us not into temptation; but deliver us from evil" (Lk. 11:2-4, KJV).
Although the Lord's Prayer is very short and one among a few of Jesus' prayers, the Lord’s Prayer is the most famous prayer in all the world.
Among Roman Catholics, priests have historically assigned individuals to pray this prayer multiple times to express penitence or gain redirection. However, Jesus gave us this prayer as a model, not as a formulated means of repentance or a method for gaining forgiveness. In fact, Jesus instructed, "But when ye pray, use not vain repetitions, as the heathen do: for they think that they shall be heard for their much speaking" (Mt. 6:7). Thus, the Model Prayer should guide us in our form of prayer, but ought not to digress into a hollow, superstitious expression.
miscue
A reading miscue is any unforced imperfection in reading a text. Reading miscues include deviations from the text such as substitutions, omissions, insertions, repetitions, hesitations, mispronunciations, or misplaced emphases of vocal tone (e.g., ignoring a comma, failing to lift your tone at the end of a question, or interjecting a sharp close at the end of a sentence which lacks an exclamation mark). Everyone experiences miscues. Even the most proficient readers will have miscues when reading sufficiently advanced material, especially when reading material from an unfamiliar field of study that is full of academic vocabulary.
Also see cueing systems and reading fluency.
Model Prayer, The
See the Lord’s Prayer.
modes of persuasion
modes of persuasion
Methods of Appeal Basis for Persuasion
Aristotle's Rhetoric gave a different definition: ethos was the creditbility of the speaker; pathos was the ; and logos was the .
Ethos: applications of goodness (loving, kind, honorable, generous, ); virtuous, correct, principled, proper, noble, exemplary, do the right thing; society's collective conscience; moral; sin; scale of justice; God; blessing v. cursing; loves or hates; deserve; merit; equality; equity; list emotions (anger, compassion; pride; fear; personalize; (if it were you?)
Pathos: emotional, (shame, pride, anger, joy, sorrow, depression, tranquil, jealousy, embarrassment, humility, cheerful, compassionate, ); pluck heart strings; feels right;
Logos: Useful, practical, serviceable, unworkable, unattainable, tactical, utilitarian, handy, inoperable, functional, unhelpful, effective, efficient, profitable, inconvenient, advantageous, ; related to (health, economic, political, mechanical), wise v. foolish; not emotional nor ethical; reason; smart thing; it makes sense; practical;
morphemic cueing system
The morphemic cueing system is based upon analyzing morphemes. A morpheme is an irreducible part of a word which possesses distinct meaning. Each morpheme is a clue to understanding the meaning of the word. Morpheme often correspond to syllables, but not always. Each prefix and suffix is a morpheme.
The structural analysis of words into affixes (i.e., prefixes, suffixes, and inflections) and root words often makes a word's meaning readily apparent. Readers who possess a strong familiarity with Latin have a great advantage in seeing morphemic cues when reading English and many other modern Latin-derived languages.
Consider the word afoot in the King James version of Acts 20:13: "And we went before to ship, and sailed unto Assos, there intending to take in Paul: for so had he appointed, minding himself to go afoot." This word is composed of two morphemes: a and foot. The prefix a- can mean either not (as a contradiction to the base word) or in or on (as an affirmation to the base word). In Acts 20:13, the word afoot means "on foot."
See cueing systems.
morphological analysis
The method of learning by using the morphemic cueing system.
narrative
A narrative is a writing format that tells a story or how something occurred. A narrative typically includes elements such as characters, setting, events, sequence, conflict, plot, etc. The narrative writing format is distinguished from informational, persuasive, expository, and other writing formats. Narratives may be fictional or nonfictional. Most narratives are written to entertain readers. Moby Dick is an example of a famous fictional narrative.
The Bible has many passages that are narratives. See biblical narrative.
narrator's point of view
The narrator's point of view is the perspective or vantiage from which the storyteller narrates. The writer of an autobiography narrates his own life's story as the main character. Hence, the author and the narrator and the main character are the same person for autobiographies. Personal letters, personal journals, and eyewitness accounts of history use the first-person point of view. However, authors most often communicate their narrative through the "voice" and from the view of a narrator. (The narrator's point of view should not be confused with the author's point of view or a character's point of view.) The narrator can present from three primary prisms or views which are simply enumerated as the first-person, the second-person, and the third-person point of view.
First-person Point of View. The narrator tells the narrative from his own perspective as the first person and as a character in the story. The evidence that the narrator is communicating from the first-person mode is that the storyteller uses first-person pronouns (i.e., I, we, me, us, myself, ourselves, my, mine, our, and ours). The author presents from his personal view as a participant or presents from the adopted view of a character. The first-person narrator is restricted in knowledge and may or may not be accurately perceiving other characters, situations, or events. The first-person narrator is one witness to the story. Many biblical writers wrote from a first-person point of view.
Second-person Point of View. The narrator tells the narrative by directly addressing the reader or the second person. The evidence that the narrator is communicating from the second-person mode is that the storyteller directly addresses the reader using second-person standard pronouns (i.e., you, your, yours, yourself, and yourselves) or second-person archaic pronouns (i.e., thou, thee, thy, thyself, and thine). The second-person point of view treats the reader as a witness to the story. The second-person point of view is the least commonly used narration mode. The second-person narration mode is commonly combined with the first-person point of view when the narrator communicates as "I" and addresses the reader as "you." Paul employs the first- and second-person voice in his personal epistles (viz., Romans, Ephesians, Titus, etc.).
Third-person Point of View. The narrator tells the narrative as an outside person or the third person. That is, the author narrates his story. The evidence that the narrator is communicating from the third-person mode is that the storyteller uses third-person pronouns (i.e., he, she, it, him, her, his, hers, its, himself, herself, itself, they, them, their, theirs, and themselves), but does not use first-person pronouns. That is, no character communicates directly to the reader. The third-person narrator may possess limited or full knowledge of the characters. The third-person narrator who has limited knowledge of the private actions, internal thoughts, and personal feelings of the characters presents from the third-person limited point of view. The third-person narrator who has unlimited knowledge of the private actions, internal thoughts, and personal feelings of the characters presents from the third-person omniscient point of view. The omniscient point of view enables the narrator to see similtaneous events in separate locations. Many biblical narratives (e.g., Jonah) are presented from the third-person omniscient point of view.
See the following links to learn more:
Near-Eastern
In reference to culture, Near-Eastern is an adjective to describe a type of or an expression of culture (e.g., literature, music, art, fashion, foods, lifestyles, values, attitudes, customs, activities, sports, etc.) commonly associated with or originating from countries of the Near-East. The adjective Near-Eastern is used synonymously with Middle-Eastern and is used to contrast Near-Eastern culture from Western culture or Far-Eastern culture. The Near-Eastern countries are on the western half of the Orient. The Near-Eastern countries include countries in north-eastern Africa and those countries east of Europe but west of India. The Near-Eastern countries are those near and between the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Arabian Sea, Red Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.
The following are a few Near-Eastern nations of today that are not named in Scripture:
The following are Near-Eastern nationalities of ancient antiquity which still exist today (with adjusted boundaries) that are named in Scripture:
The following are Near-Eastern nationalities of ancient antiquity which no longer exist that are named in Scripture:
The following are Near-Eastern nationalities of classical antiquity which no longer exist (with the exception of the first) that are named in Scripture:
Israel is the national focus of the Old Testament. The Old Testament is immersed in and permeated with ancient Near-Eastern culture. The Old Testament is the foundation of the New Testament; furthermore, the Mosaic Law within the Old Testament guided much of English law and American law. As a result, Western culture has been inseparable shaped by aspects of ancient Near-Eastern thinking and practices.
Today, the Near-Eastern nations are predominately Islamic, with the exception of Israel which is Jewish. The religion of Islam (which developed during the Middle Ages) and the influence of Sharia law have spread Middle-Eastern dress, beliefs, and values to the northern half of Africa and to Muslim converts throughout Europe and America.
As an aside, the following are European nationalities of classical antiquity mentioned in the Bible:
India is a Far-Eastern nation of classical antiquity mentioned in the Bible.
non-Israelite
The Scripture often classifies humanity into two: Israelites and non-Israelites. “When the most High divided to the nations their inheritance, when he separated the sons of Adam, he set the bounds of the people according to the number of the children of Israel” (Dt. 32:8). The Israelites were also called Hebrews or Jews. The phrase non-Israelite has significance after the Israelites developed into a recognized people group. The non-Israelites were called Gentiles, the peoples, or the nations. In the New Testament, the division is given as the “Jews and Gentiles” in the KJV, NIV, and TLB or as the “Jews and Greeks” in the ASV, NAS, RSV, and NKJV (e.g., Ro. 3:9). Among the most popular nations of the non-Israelites found in the Old Testament were the Egyptians, Ishmaelites, Ammonites, Moabites, Philistines, Amalekites, Ethiopians, Syrians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, Persians, etc. In general, those nations most distinctly different than Israel were those nations who came from Ham and Japheth, two of humanity's three forefathers (1Ch. 1:1-37). In the New Testament, the non-Israelites were the Romans and Greeks of various subgroups. A third classification is added in the New Testament: the Church. “Give none offence, neither to the Jews, nor to the Gentiles, nor to the church of God” (1Co. 10:32). Non-Israelites are found thoughout the Old Testament, but the primary focus of the Old Testament is upon the Israelites. In the New Testament, the focus begins upon the Israelites, but shifts to the Church (comprised of Jews and Gentiles). As is true of the Old Testament, the non-Israelites play a regular background role in the New Testament.
Also see Israelite.
picture cueing system
The picture cueing system is based upon drawing inferences from pictorial elements to determine the meaning of words. Most beginner’s Bibles are really picture-Bibles with a few simple words and many pictures which attempted to artistically depict scenes described in the pages of Scripture. Picture cueing builds understanding based upon maps, charts, graphs, symbols, figures, illustrations, and photographs and the captions which may accompany those picture elements. It's been said, "A picture's worth a thousand words." Balancing the Sword has more than 1,000 images to enrich your understanding and increase your retention with a visual aid.
See cueing systems.
plot
The plot is the storyline of events in a dramatic work of literature. A plot is the sequential organization of interaction between characters and of circumstantial changes. In other words, the plot is the accumulated arrangement of all action, motion, change, or movement in the story.
A plot develops as you read. Verbs reveal developments. Look for major pivotal action (e.g., marriage, birth, growth, sickness, death, loss, discovery, war, alliances, etc.).
Actions typically (1) introduce the characters, set the stage, and frame the stakes (i.e., set value or attachment) by the exposition, (2) build the conflict (i.e., threaten loss or assault value), or (3) resolve the conflict (i.e., render justice or restore goodness). Changes, in biblical literature, were introduced into the stories as
Plots vary from simple to complex stories. Action or change creates interest for readers. In fact, an intriguing plot with unexpected turns can be redressed with different characters and repositioned into different settings without the loss of intrigue.
For example, a simplified summary of the plot of Ruth is as follows. A family of four traveled to Moab. The two sons each married a Moabite. The father and sons died. The mother named Naomi and one daughter-in-law named Ruth returned to Bethlehem. Ruth and Naomi gleaned from Boaz’s field. Ruth found favor in the eyes of Boaz. Ruth expressed her need to Boaz. Boaz married Ruth and redeemed Naomi’s family land.
point of view
Point of view, a chief element in literature, is the perspective of a key participant in the complex relationship between the writer, the story's narrator, the characters within the story, and the various readers. There are four points of view to consider:
When the phrase point of view is used without qualification, the reference likely intends the narrator's point of view.
post-reading strategies
Post-reading or after-reading strategies are active reading strategies implemented after reading a book. Post-reading strategies are composed of reviewing assignments or activities that will prolong the official completion, but will anchor new concepts and sharpen opinions.
Post-reading strategies are considered response strategies and sometimes accounted repair strategies.
Below are some post-reading or after-reading strategies.
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See pre-reading strategies and during-reading strategies and close reading to learn more.
AO-10. Demonstrate awareness of methods used in modern academic study of the Bible.
LA.A.1.4.1 select and use prereading strategies that are appropriate to the text, such as discussion, making predictions, brainstorming, generating questions, and previewing to anticipate content, purpose, and organization of a reading selection.
LA.A.1.4.2 select and use strategies to understand words and text, and to make and confirm inferences from what is read, including interpreting diagrams, graphs, and statistical illustrations.
LA.A.2.4.6 select and use appropriate study and research skills and tools according to the type of information being gathered or organized, including almanacs, government publications, microfiche , [Internet], news sources, and information services.
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AO-6. Demonstrate use of before, during, and after reading strategies and critical-thinking skills to enhance comprehension of literary, informational, and technical text.
LA.A.1.4.1 select and use prereading strategies that are appropriate to the text, such as discussion, making predictions, brainstorming, generating questions, and previewing to anticipate content, purpose, and organization of a reading selection.
LA.A.1.4.4 apply a variety of response strategies, including rereading, note taking, summarizing, outlining, writing a formal report, and relating what is read to his or her own experiences and feelings.
LA.A.2.4.2 determine the author’s purpose and point of view and their effects on the text.
LA.A.2.4.5 identify devices of persuasion and methods of appeal and their effectiveness.
LA.A.2.4.7 analyze the validity and reliability of primary source information and use the information appropriately.
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An Internet search for "reading strategies" will provide other suggestions.
meditation
pragmatic cueing system
The pragmatic cueing system is one of the main four language cueing systems. This technique is based upon the practical purpose motivating the writer and/or the reader. Furthermore, pragmatic cues hinge the meaning of what was said based upon the social standings of the writer and the audience and upon the social setting in which the message was communicated.
Readers with highly varied and developed social skills excel in detecting pragmatic cues. (See reader's background knowledge.) Those who are socially rounded understand that language is modified to immediate conditions and audiences. (For example, a parent's corrections to a toddler sounds very different than a military drill sergeant's corrections to a private.)
The pragmatic cueing system leans upon detecting and appreciating motives, tones, and situational nuances; therefore, pragmatic cues are subtle to young readers, who are limited in complex and varied real-world experiences.
Reading of situations in the Bible is lost on some modern Western readers due to our cultural differences. For example, most Westerners do not initially grasp the scandalous image to which Jesus, as a Jewish man, subjected himself by conversing privately with the Samaritan woman at the well (Jn. 4:6-28).
The cultural context of the writing and the author's intent become very important to the pragmatic cueing system. The pragmatic cueing system considers the appropriate tone that accompanies each literary genre.
See cueing systems.
pre-reading strategies
Pre-reading strategies or before-reading strategies are active reading strategies implemented before reading a book. Pre-reading strategies are composed of preview assignments or activities that will delay your launch, but will substantially improve your journey through the Scripture.
Below are some before-reading or pre-reading strategies.
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KWL Worksheet. Complete a KWL Worksheet: What you KNOW? What you WANT to learn? What did you LEARN?
VAR Learning Model
Prereading Strategies
Related Terms
draw inferences
See during-reading strategies and post-reading strategies and close reading to learn more.
protagonist
The protagonist, in contrast to the antagonist, is the character who plays the primary hero or heroine. A narrative cannot have an agonist (either protagonist or antagonist) without an agony or a conflict. From a literary perspective, the ultimate protagonist in the Bible is God as represented through the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Those who rescued the Israelites were called “deliverers” or “saviors” in the King James Version (Jdg. 3:9; 2Ki. 13:5; Ne. 9:27; Ac. 7:35).
Most of the protagonists of the Bible were antiheroes, figures who lacked traditional heroic qualities or whose behavior ought not to be fully emulated. In fact, God preferred to work through relatively unimpressive people as measured by society’s standards.
The common biblical hero or heroine were unlikely superstars. The Father hid His truths “from the wise and prudent” but “revealed them unto babes” (Mt. 11:25). Why did God choose the lowly? “But God hath chosen the foolish things of the world to confound the wise; and God hath chosen the weak things of the world to confound the things which are mighty; And base things of the world, and things which are despised, hath God chosen, yea, and things which are not, to bring to nought things that are: That no flesh should glory in his presence” (1Co. 1:27-29).
Most of the protagonists summarized in Hebrews 11:4-32 were antiheroes and antiheroines authentically described as having committed sins, yet the descriptions in Hebrews recollects only their displays of faith in God.
The historical narratives of the Bible carry greater believability because of the realism captured in Scripture. The Scripture does not portray characters in ethical perfection as is common in fairytale idealism. There are few biblical characters—all of whom were imperfect humans—who were presented as near perfect figures:
punctuation marks
Punctuation marks are typographic characters added to words to clarify meaning. Punctuation marks are an important aspect of the syntactic cueing system. Punctuation marks include
The rules of punctuation in the older Bible translations is different than modern translations.
purpose of the author See author’s purpose.
reader's background knowledge
A reader’s background knowledge is the sum total of his knowledge which he brings to his reading experience. A reader’s experiential knowledge greatly influences the depth of his insights as he reads. The more the reader knows, the easier it is to learn more. One who struggles over basic vocabulary words will forfeit much time learning new words. (See vocabulary.)
For example, an attorney has a special advantage when reading the Mosaic Law. Likewise, a person who is well-traveled throughout Israel and the Mediterranean will have greater ease envisioning the geographical aspects sprinkled throughout the Bible. Furthermore, Philip the evangelist knew of Jesus’ sacrificial death. This allowed Philip to understand Isaiah 53 while the Ethiopian eunuch felt he could not understand the Scripture “except some man should guide" him (Ac. 8:31). Based upon the number of quotes from the Old Testament, Matthew’s gospel presumed that his audience was familiar with the Old Testament.
Some literary devices employed by biblical characters presumed background knowledge. Parables, metaphors, and similes were designed to utilize a reader's preexisting knowledge to build new understanding on a comparable subject. When God questioned His people asking, "Is not my word like as a fire? saith the LORD; and like a hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces?" (Jer. 23:29), the questions presumed that His audience knew of fire's consuming power and the hammer's shattering strength.
Background knowledge lends a natural advantage to adults over children who have very little life experience. For this reason, it is incumbent upon parents to explain the Scripture to their children (Dt. 6:7). A reader's background knowledge is the key aspect of the pragmatic cueing system.
Also see author's background knowledge.
reader's point of view
The reader's point of view is the point of view (i.e., opinions and emotions) held by the audience or the reader. (The narrator communicates to the narratee or narratees.) How does the reader view the topic? Every person has a mental grid and emotional undercurrents through which literature is viewed. The reader’s or narratee’s conscience and subconscious presuppositions influence his interpretation of an author's entire work. The reader's background knowledge substantially shapes the reader's point of view.
A writer might publish his work for the benefit of all and with no one in particular in mind. In such a case, all readers of the same language living contemporaneously with (and sometimes after) the writer are members of the originally intended audience. In distinction, if an author writes for or to a specific individual or group (e.g., a 2012 congressional report for members of the 112th U.S. Congress), readers become divided between the original audience and the secondary audience. Therefore, the reader's point of view is appropriately divided into two classifications: the original reader's point of view and the secondary reader's point of view. A skillful author, who writes with a foreknown audience, crafts words to best communicate with his intended audience. The author will presume upon the reader’s background knowledge and the reader’s opinions and emotions (or, point of view). The mature writer will harness the reader’s agreements and persuade the reader’s disagreements.
Many books in the Bible and sections within biblical books were for or to special classes or subgroups (e.g., priests, Levites, kings and princes, prophets, church elders, men, women, children, masters, slaves, etc.). The apostle Paul's letters are clear examples of writings authored for named audiences.
Original audiences have obvious advantages over subsequent readers who are at risk for lacking important background knowledge or distant opinions and emotions. Generally, the secondary reader’s point of view diminishes in quality with increased estrangement (i.e., distance by ideology, ethnicity, gender, time, culture, etc.). To clarify, the unbelieving female reader from a modern Western culture is at greater risk for misunderstanding an Old Testament passage written to ancient, Near-Eastern Hebrew men than the originally intended readers.
Today's readers hold one distinct advantage of a canon of sixty-six books. It is reasonable to assume that most individuals who lived during the days of the Old Testament and the New Testament authors owned no personal copies of the biblical books or owned limited collections.
Apostolic letters were intended for circulation: "And when this [Colossians] epistle is read among you, cause that it be read also in the church of the Laodiceans; and that ye likewise read the epistle from Laodicea" (Col. 4:16). Furthermore, Hebrews 1:1 opens stating that "God ... spake in time past unto the fathers by the prophets...." The Old Testament prophets were not accounted, by the apostle Peter, as the principal author of their works. "Knowing this first, that no prophecy of the scripture is of any private interpretation. For the prophecy came not in old time by the will of man: but holy men of God spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost" (2Pe. 1:20-21). The Jews held an advantage above all nations in that "chiefly, because that unto them were committed the oracles of God" (Ro. 3:2). Although entrusted to the Jews, according to the apostle Paul, the Old Testament canon was also for the benefit of the New Testament faithful. "For whatsoever things were written aforetime were written for our learning..." (Ro. 15:4; cf., Ro. 4:23-24; 1Co. 9:9-10; 10:6, 11; 2Ti. 3:16-17).
Bear in mind that the normal purpose of reading is to understand the writer's meaning; therefore, all readers should constantly ask, What purpose, point of view, and background knowledge did the author have? The reader who is unconscious of his point of view is in danger of imposing his emotions and opinions onto the words to the obfuscation of the writer's meaning.
See the following links to learn more:
reading fluency
Reading fluency is the ability to quickly and smoothly read text with appropriate pauses and inflections. Reading deficiency is manifested by miscues. Reading fluency permits a reader to absorb the most from the Bible and all literature, whether reading or listening. Words convey ideas. When a struggling reader stumbles over unfamiliar words, he loses focus on those thoughts that the author intended to convey. The artistic appeal of poetry vanishes with each miscue. Reading fluency is largely determined by one's vocabulary and ability to sequentially scan words. Your reading fluency improves with increased practice at reading.
Reading fluency also advances by hearing proficient readers. I strongly recommend that parents read the Scripture to their children when they are little. Require your children to read along. As soon as possible, have your child read aloud while you read along and correct any miscues.
Most pastors privately stutter through the long listings of ancient Hebrew names several times before reading such passages publicly. The difficulty of the names found in the Bible (among other reasons) causes me to strongly urge that most Christians listen to professional readers narrate the Bible on video or audio for premier assistance.
Another key technique for improving reading fluency is use of complex cueing systems.
reading strategies
Reading strategies or active reading strategies are activities that a reader can use to enhance comprehension and recall of a text. Active reading is the opposite of passive reading. Simply reading the Bible will convey benefits to an average reader, and passive reading will require the least amount of time by a Bible student. In contrast, actively reading the Bible while employing reading strategies will require more time. The reward to those who invest the additional effort into reading strategy assignments will
Active reading strategies are divided into three activities based upon when the stratagems are implemented in comparison to when the reading is done: (1) pre-reading strategies, (2) during-reading strategies, and (3) post-reading strategies. Balancing the Sword is a study tool designed to guide an active as a during-reading strategy and post-reading strategy.
See close reading.
semantic cueing system
The semantic cueing system is one of the main four language cueing systems. This technique is also known as the contextual cueing system or the lexical cueing system. The semantic cueing system is based upon meaning within context. Semantic understanding is largely determined by the reader's vocabulary or lexicon.
Semantic cues are gained through using knowledge of known words which precede or follow the unknown word. For example, suppose that you do not recognize the word gourd. We read about a gourd in Jonah 4:6-7. "And the LORD God prepared a gourd, and made it to come up over Jonah, that it might be a shadow over his head, to deliver him from his grief. So Jonah was exceeding glad of the gourd. But God prepared a worm when the morning rose the next day, and it smote the gourd that it withered." The meaning of gourd can be deciphered from the meaning of other known words within the context. The gourd provided shade, was killed by a worm, and withered. Therefore, we can glean that the gourd was a fast growing plant with broad foliage.
Homonyms can throw your correct understanding, but synonyms and antonyms interlaced into the text help us to decode meaning of unknown words (as is found in the parallel poetry frequently employed in Psalms and Proverbs). Furthermore, surrounding similes and metaphors aids us in learning unknown words.
The word yoke is easy to pronounce because it follows simple phonetic rules, so a young reader who's never read the word may be able to pronounce the word without difficulty. But, did he understand what was meant? The only meaning of yoke for the young, urban reader may be the center of an egg. However, taken within context, Jesus' reference to yoke in Matthew 11:28-30 cannot be speaking of the yoke of an egg. "Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you, and learn of me; for I am meek and lowly in heart: and ye shall find rest unto your souls. For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light" (Mt. 11:28-30). The words labour, heavy laden, rest, easy, burden, and light would all imply that yoke has something to do with stress and work.
See cueing systems.
setting
In literature, setting refers to (1) the physical, (2) the historical, and (3) the social environments in which a story unfolds. All events occurs in (1) a place in space, (2) a point in time, and (3) a condition of existence. Some forms of literature (e.g., a poem about a flower) may omit one or all aspects of setting. Most works of literature, that include characters, will also include all three aspects of setting.
A writing may include primary and secondary settings in all three descriptions of setting (place, time, and condition). A clear example of a primary and a secondary setting is evident in the Book of Ruth regarding geography. The book opens with the characters leaving Bethlehem, Judah of Israel for the country of Moab. The characters return to Bethlehem after the first 19 verses of the first chapter. The remaing three chapters are set in Bethlehem. Bethlehem is the primary physical setting; Moab is the secondary physical setting.
A setting that changes through a writing is a dynamic setting; a setting that remains constant through a writing is a static setting. To illustrate, the Book of Numbers opens "in the Wilderness of Sinai" (Nu. 1:1) with the first generation of Israelites who escaped Egyptian slavery and closes "in the plains of Moab by the Jordan, across from Jericho" (Nu. 36:13) with the second generation of Israelites who entered the Promised Land. The cultural context or social setting of the book is the nomatic, ancient Israelites. Therefore, the geographical setting and historical setting are dynamic settings. The social context is a static setting.
See geographical setting, historical setting, and social setting to learn more.
social setting
Social setting or cultural context is an aspect of setting that pertains to the human environment among which events occur and among which characters live or interact. A social setting is a condition of existence. Literary characters perceive their cultural context through all of their senses. Social context is dependent upon people who form a culture. Cultural settings might be described as (1) sustained conditions, (2) collective expectations, or (3) prevailing norms among a group of people or a social network as classified by various distinctions:
The Bible is set in ancient Near-Eastern culture and classical Greco-Roman culture. A common error of today's Bible readers is interpreting Scripture from our modern Western perspective.
See setting, geographical setting, and historical setting to learn more.
stylistic Related to style. See author's style.
Synoptic Gospels
Synoptic begins with the prefix syn- which means together. The stem word optic means view. The Synoptic Gospels are the three Canonical Gospels that share the same view: Matthew, Mark, and Luke. John's account of Jesus offers a high percentage of unique content. In contrast, the accounts of Matthew, Mark, and Luke each have a high percentage of overlap. Mark's account includes the least amount of unique content.
Synoptic Problem
The Synoptic Problem attempts to understand the cause behind the similarities and dissimilarities within the Synoptic Gospels. An examination of the the Canonical Gospels naturally lends broader insights into the life of Jesus through the differences within the gospel accounts, that is, through the unique information that each gospel offers. The creditibility of the witness accounts builds based upon overlap. The Synoptic Problem focuses upon the sequence of authorship and the striking similiarities within the reports.
syntactic cueing system
The syntactic cueing system is one of the main four language cueing systems. This technique is also known as the grammatical cueing system. The syntactic cueing system is based upon syntax. Syntax, in language arts, refers to the orderly system by which phrases, words, and other grammatical elements are constructed.
Languages possess predictable patterns. We can decode what a word might mean based upon where the word was placed within the sentence. Readers who can quickly identify how words function (e.g., noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, proposition, conjunction, and interjection) and who are attentive to punctuation marks possess an advantage in recognizing syntactic cues.
Sentences which begin following a typical structure hint towards which or what type of word or phrase may complete the sentence. For example, the phrase "Praise ye the LORD" appears twenty-five times in the Book of Psalms in the King James version. As a result, a familiar readers of psalms can predict that the word LORD will follow when he begins to read "Praise ye the...." Syntactic cueing systems increase our reading speed. A common sentence structure begins with the subject animated by a verb regarding an object. Such a sentence would normally include a noun phrase for the subject, a verb phrase for the verb, and another noun phrase for the object. (Little Tom quickly ran to the store.)
One of the challenges presented by older English construction (as used in the Authorized Version, the Young's Literal Translation, or the Geneva Bible) is that modern readers cannot as easily identify and predict the syntax. For example, Matthew 23:1 in the KJV possesses an oddly sequenced construction where the subject (viz., Jesus) is placed between the verb (i.e., spake) and object (viz., the multitude): "Then spake Jesus to the multitude...." The New King James translated this verse more smoothly using the subject-verb-object format: "Then Jesus spoke to the multitudes...."
See cueing systems.
text-dependent questions
Text-dependent questions are questions which can be answered directly from the passage being read. The reader does not need any outside tools or resources to answer text-dependent questions. A diligent scrutiny of the target chapter or the reading section will always provide the specific answer to each text-dependent question. Text-dependent questions focus the reader upon the author's ideas and are not open to the reader's interpretation. High-quality text-dependent questions force the reader to give attention to details and prevent the student from merely skimming the text. Developing the skills to carefully analyze reading material to find small details within a text is a principal goal of the Common Core State Standards, the K-12 academic standards used by most states in the United States.
There are more than 7,000 questions with more than 12,000 parts in the Balancing the Sword books. Every question in Balancing the Sword is a text-dependent question about a specific chapter of the Bible.
textual cueing system
The textual cueing system is based upon the organization of the text. The literary form or genre influences the text’s structure or organization which in turn influences meaning or interpretations. Some forms lend themselves towards strict organizational patterns (e.g., legal document or poem). Other forms tend towards a loose or fluid arrangement (e.g., dialogue or personal journal).
John 9:17-27 records a dialogue between the Pharisees and a man healed by Jesus and the man’s parents. Knowing that the following passage is a dialogue which integrates personal recollections of a very controversial event prepares us for the elusive exchange. The parents claim ignorance, but can you trust their words? No. The nature of an interrogation alters the way we interpret the words.
The Pharisees “say unto the blind man again, What sayest thou of him, that he hath opened thine eyes? He said, He is a prophet. But the Jews did not believe concerning him, that he had been blind, and received his sight, until they called the parents of him that had received his sight. And they asked them, saying, Is this your son, who ye say was born blind? how then doth he now see? His parents answered them and said, We know that this is our son, and that he was born blind: But by what means he now seeth, we know not; or who hath opened his eyes, we know not: he is of age; ask him: he shall speak for himself. These words spake his parents, because they feared the Jews: for the Jews had agreed already, that if any man did confess that he was Christ, he should be put out of the synagogue. Therefore said his parents, He is of age; ask him. Then again called they the man that was blind, and said unto him, Give God the praise: we know that this man is a sinner. He answered and said, Whether he be a sinner or no, I know not: one thing I know, that, whereas I was blind, now I see. Then said they to him again, What did he to thee? how opened he thine eyes? He answered them, I have told you already, and ye did not hear: wherefore would ye hear it again? will ye also be his disciples?”
See cueing systems.
theme
A writing theme (or, motif) is a principal subject, concept, or idea that is repeated in the text. A theme is broad in thought, but brief in summary. Sometimes a writing's title plainly reveals the main theme. In other cases, we find the theme undergirding the characters and interlaced through the events. The theme is deeper than the decoration of literary devices and behind artistic word choices, but the theme may be rendered to the reader through repetitious vocabulary. Unlike miscellaneous topics found in literature, a theme reoccurs to the reader by the variation of new settings, characters, events, dialogue, and the like. A theme is best identified through pondering a writing after thoroughly reading the text. We miss the most critical summarizing thoughts of a writer if we fail to detect his theme. Remember that a book can have multiple themes. The Bible has several recurrent themes which are interwoven through the various biblical books creating the sense of unity throughout. The following themes are found in many biblical books:
tone
Tone is the feeling conveyed by the author towards his subject. Tone should not be confused with the emotional expressions of characters referenced or of witnesses cited. Likewise, tone is not to be confused with mood. Tone springs from the author’s feels as revealed in his writing.
If the tone is not evident, the tone is regarded as neutral or impartial. (In truth, authors generally write upon subjects that they feel are important and about which they hold intellectual presuppositions and feelings of approval or disapproval.) Impartiality is expected from authors of certain types of writings: financial reports, scientific reviews, judicial rulings, history books, news articles, etc.
Tone may be communicated directly or indirectly. Indirectly, tone is evidenced by the connotations of the words selected by the author. Euphemistic words (or, pejorative terms) are positive, agreeable, or kind variations; dysphemistic words (or, laudative terms) are negative, disagreeable, or unkind variations. For example, a child born from an adulterous relationship might be called a love child or a bastard child. To illustrate further, the American Civil War was referred to as the War of the Rebellion by Northerners and as the War of Northern Aggression by Southerners.
Tone may be indirectly conveyed by how the author portrays the hero and the villain. An author, who is spiteful against Christianity, might cast the antagonist as a preacher and the protagonist as a pro-evolutionary scientist. Historians subtly convey tone by the convenient omission or embellishment of events. New reporters slip their own personal partisanship into their articles by similar methods.
In the Bible, some authors clearly convey their intense love for their ideas and audiences. The apostle Paul communicated intense feelings: “For out of much affliction and anguish of heart I wrote unto you with many tears ... that ye might know the love which I have more abundantly unto you” (2Co. 2:4). The historical narratives (e.g., 1 Kings) hold a near impartial tone by unemotionally stating facts.
See author's purpose and author's point of view to learn more.
typographic cueing system
The typographic cueing system is based upon the typesetting of printed material. The placement and stylistic appearance of a word can influence the meaning of that word. Appearance is determined by formatting attributes, including capitalization, font style, size, color, spacing, or by adding special print conventions: underlining, italicizing, or boldfacing.
In most modern copies of the Bible, the words of Jesus are printed in red ink. By simply printing in red ink, the publisher has placed interpretive significance upon the words. Likewise, the Tetragrammaton (i.e., the four-letter name for God) is most commonly printed as capitalized L-O-R-D or G-O-D (in contrast to “Lord” or “God”). (Read the Preface of Balancing the Sword for more information about the Tetragrammaton.)
Originally, the Hebrew, upon which the first thirty-nine books of the Bible are based, did not have capitalizations. Therefore, all capitalized words in the Old Testament bear the publisher’s implied interpretation. Likewise, paragraph breaks and the division of chapters and verses were added to the original biblical manuscripts. Each visual separation between verses, paragraphs, or chapters has the potential of changing the meaning of a text.
Some simplified printings of the Bible have virtually no formatting assistance; however, most study Bibles have many typographic cues added by titles, subtitles, headings, subheadings, indentations, color, etc.
See cueing systems.
vocabulary
A vocabulary or lexicon is a collection or range of words or phrases included in a language, field of study, level of education, book, or person's knowledge. Individual’s possess a
We may be strong in one form while weak in another. In fact, illiterate adults often possess strong conversational skills, yet they cannot read the words that they speak.
The size of a vocabulary is measured by the quantity of words or phrases. A vocabulary’s sophistication is determined by the breadth, precision, and rarity of the words or phrases included. Dictionaries contain vocabulary words arranged alphabetically. A Bible concordance (e.g., The Strong’s Concordance) contains Hebrew and Greek words also arranged alphabetically to help students better understand words found in the Bible.
We are born without a vocabulary. Our oral vocabulary is developed as children before our reading vocabulary. As toddlers, we understand the world in simple terms of good or bad and in other elementary expressions. As we grow, the word good can be replaced with more precise words such as tasty, colorful, comfortable, mighty, quick, brilliant, etc.
A large oral vocabulary facilitates the quick development of our reading vocabulary. Those with a narrow vocabulary, such as children, struggle to read most literature. The broader vocabulary that a person possesses, the less difficulty a reader will have with reading fluency. Therefore, the more focus the reader can give to understanding the concepts conveyed by the words. (See reader's background knowledge.)
The Bible includes specialized words. (See academic vocabulary.) Some translations of the Bible are designed for new readers. However, these translations often forfeit accuracy for simplicity. See the readability of translations to learn more.
Vocabulary words can be divided in several ways: figurative, idiomatic, technical, common, etc. Vocabulary words can also be divided by function: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, conjunctions, etc.
Our understanding of a word's meaning should include both denotations (i.e., direct meanings) and connotations (i.e., indirect meanings).
A reader's vocabulary determines his semantic cueing skills. Cueing systems will increase your vocabulary.
Also see content area vocabulary and high frequency content area vocabulary.
Western
In reference to culture, Western is an adjective to describe a type of or an expression of culture (e.g., literature, music, art, fashion, foods, lifestyles, values, attitudes, customs, activities, sports, etc.) commonly associated with or originating from countries of the West. Countries of the West or Western countries are those historically shaped by Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian influence as transferred by evangelism, colonial expansion, exploration, migration, and trade. Western countries includes (but is not limited to) those countries that are predominately populated by those of European ancestry. There is no official list of Western nations. Western countries include the European countries, the countries of North America, Central America, and South America, Australia, New Zealand, and more.
The word Western is used to contrast Western culture from Oriental or Eastern culture (Eastern including Near-Eastern or Middle-Eastern and Far-Eastern). Regrettably, Western culture has also become a pejorative phrase to designate values (e.g., immodest dress and illicit relationships) that are contrary to biblical values.
Today, America is the largest exporter of Western culture through our movies, music, social media, and software. Modern youth in India, Japan, and elsewhere are adopting many aspects of Western culture. |
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