Glossary of Literary Terms, Biblical Terms, and Theological Terms




Home Buy Now Books Reading Planner Vocabulary Tool Gallery Author Blog Testimonials Study Support Homeschoolers Organizations Events Speakers Laws Other FAQ Tell a Friend Contact	Glossary of Literary, Biblical, and Theological Terms New Glossary Word List New Glossary Compiled Handouts http://www.balancingthesword.com/Study_Support/Hyperlinked/verse.asp?book_id=6&chapter=23&verse=7 http://www.balancingthesword.com/Study_Support/Hyperlinked/verse.asp?book_id=2&chapter=12&verse=1&end_verse=2 http://www.fldoe.org/cc/glossary.asp http://dbs.myflorida.com/transition/glossary.php http://www.fldoe.org/military/generaled/glossary.asp http://fcat.fldoe.org/handbk/glossary.pdf http://www.bnkst.edu/literacyguide/terms.html http://www.innvista.com/culture/religion/bible/literary.htm Nevada Standards Glossary Term: graphophonic analysis The method of learning using the graphophonic cueing system. Glossary Term: syntactic analysis The method of learning using the syntactic cueing system. Glossary Term: semantic analysis The method of learning using the semantic cueing system. Glossary Term: pragmatic analysis The method of learning using the pragmatic cueing system. Glossary Term: typographic analysis The method of learning using the typographic cueing system. Glossary Term: complex cueing systems See cueing systems. ************************************************************************************************** Review: http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~jsd6498/damico/miscue.html Review: http://www.education.gov.sk.ca/adx/aspx/adxGetMedia.aspx?DocID=6718 ************************************************************************************************ generating questions** “Prequestions: Whenever teachers or students decided on questions to be answered by reading, they are activating prior knowledge. These questions tend to focus attention and provide for purposeful reading. Teachers can accomplish this by preparing questions in advance of reading. This will help in guiding students as they complete their reading assignment. The teacher can also help students develop their own questions which will help them establish purpose and focus attention.” (http://departments.weber.edu/teachall/reading/prereading.html); “The following suggestions are a few generic ideas that can be used to integrate reading skills into student writings. 1. Generate questions or ideas about the reading based on the title of the selection. This activity is designed to engage the reader. 2. Use double-entry journals to provide a purpose for reading and encourage critical thinking. The student interrogates the text by generating questions and looking for answers to their questions as they read the selection.” (http://litsite.alaska.edu/workbooks/gregareading.html); “Generate questions and predictions to guide your reading. Ask general questions such as * What is this chapter (section) about? * Whose perspectives are included? * What do I want to know? * What will I be able to do with the information? Ask specific questions, such as * How does this concept (point, example) connect with (a previous point, personal experience, another text…). * Do I understand the chapter, section, concept…? * Is the information in the text sufficient for my purpose? * What does this word mean? * Why does the author use this example? Generate questions about your assumptions about the text, author’s perspective... * What purpose do I have for reading this text? * What is MY perspective/stance on the content? * What do I already know about the subject?” (http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/rtorosyan/Conf/CalderwoodCriticalReadingStrategies.ppt) Judaism “the monotheistic religion of the Jews, having its ethical, ceremonial, and legal foundation in the precepts of the Old Testament and in the teachings and commentaries of the rabbis as found chiefly in the Talmud.” “The religion of the Israelites of the Bible and of the Jews of today, based on the teachings of the Torah. Judaism involves the belief in one God, whose Chosen People are the Jews. Abraham is considered the founder of Judaism, although Moses, who delivered the laws of God to the Israelites, is also an important figure. The holy days and festivals of Judaism include Hanukkah, Passover, Purim, Rosh Hashanah, and Yom Kippur.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Judaism) application (may need more definition) “the practical inference to be derived from a discourse (as a moral tale)” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/application) assessment data (May need better organization. I’ve used two different terms: “assessment” and “data.”) (The following definition is for the word “assessment” as it relates to school performance.) “Measuring, collecting, and bringing together information about a child's present level of performance. Classroom assessment includes the tests and observations made by a teacher of the child's day-to-day learning in a class. Statewide assessment includes the standardized tests given to students in Florida to determine how well they are learning the knowledge and skills in the Sunshine State Standards.” (http://www.cpt.fsu.edu/ese/glossary.html) data “a body of facts; information: Additional data is available from the president of the firm.” “Factual information, especially information organized for analysis or used to reason or make decisions.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/data) brainstorming “A classroom strategy that generates a list of ideas or a creative solution. First, all students in the group contribute input, accepting all ideas. Then the group works cooperatively to edit and refine their list, creating a final product.” (http://www.cpt.fsu.edu/ese/glossary.html); “A technique of idea generation in which the writer quickly jots down words or phrases related to a broad subject. When the time limit (five or ten minutes) is reached, related items are grouped; groupings with the greatest number of items indicate potential topics for composition.” (Leonard J. Rosen and Laurence Behrens, The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 4th ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000, 795) card catalog “a catalog (as of books) in which the entries are arranged systematically on cards” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/card%20catalog); “a file of cards of uniform size arranged in some definite order and listing the items in the collection of a library or group of libraries, each card typically identifying a single item.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/card%20catalog) classroom research (The following definition may not be correct for the context) “popularized by Tom Angelo and Patricia Cross, a method for eliciting, analyzing and responding to student feedback on their progress in achieving course goals.” (http://www.evergreen.edu/washcenter/resources/acl/iii2.html) codex (plural, codices) “1. a quire of manuscript pages held together by stitching: the earliest form of book, replacing the scrolls and wax tablets of earlier times. 2. a manuscript volume, usually of an ancient classic or the Scriptures. [Latin co-dex, co-dic-, tree trunk, wooden tablet, book, variant of caudex, trunk.] Word History: Latin co-dex, the source of our word, is a variant of caudex, a wooden stump to which petty criminals were tied in ancient Rome, rather like our stocks. This was also the word for a book made of thin wooden strips coated with wax upon which one wrote. The usual modern sense of codex, "book formed of bound leaves of paper or parchment," is due to Christianity. By the first century B.C. there existed at Rome notebooks made of leaves of parchment, used for rough copy, first drafts, and notes. By the first century A.D. such manuals were used for commercial copies of classical literature. The Christians adopted this parchment manual format for the Scriptures used in their liturgy because a codex is easier to handle than a scroll and because one can write on both sides of a parchment but on only one side of a papyrus scroll. By the early second century all Scripture was reproduced in codex form. In traditional Christian iconography, therefore, the Hebrew prophets are represented holding scrolls and the Evangelists holding codices.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/codex) collaborative “to work jointly with others or together especially in an intellectual endeavor” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/collaborative) collaborative decision making (See “collaborative”) competency “Competency: A competency is an ability or level of knowledge an instructor would want students to possess (i.e., students will know the plots of Shakespeare's tragedies.). A competency may exist in a nested structure as a part of other competencies.” (http://icon.uiowa.edu/support/onlinehelp/tools/competencies/#competencies); “A competency is a measurable, observable demonstration of something a student knows and is able to do.” (http://dcsd.k12.nv.us/main.aspx?pageid=195); “A learned skill performed in a knowledge and/or attitudinal area which can be accurately repeated or measured; an activity (cluster of skills and knowledge) that a person performs in an occupation [note by Ann: or school setting] that is both observable and measurable and that forms the basis for competency-based criteria.” (http://www.fldoe.org/cc/glossary.asp) complex elements of .... complex “Involved or intricate, as in structure; complicated.” “composed of many interconnected parts; compound; composite: a complex highway system.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/complex) elements “a component or constituent of a whole or one of the parts into which a whole may be resolved by analysis: Bricks and mortar are elements of every masonry wall.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/elements) complex response to varied texts (See “complex”) [This definition isn’t complete, but the below text may help to some degree.] [When a student is giving complex responses to a text, they may analyze and interpret, etc., using various reading strategies. -Ann Merritt For more about responses to texts, see the following link, esp. pages 459-462.: (source) “In particular instructional settings, for instance (i.e., when teachers ask for elaborated inferences about characters or meanings), readers need to develop a repertoire of skills for producing sophisticated analyses of texts.” (source) comprehension “the act or process of comprehending.” “perception or understanding: His comprehension of physics is amazing for a young student.” “capacity of the mind to perceive and understand; power to grasp ideas; ability to know.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/comprehension) computer catalog (The following definitions are in reference to “online catalogs”) “An electronic or digitized version of a library's card catalog.” (copia.library.cornell.edu/newhelp/glossary.html); “A computerized database which usually can be searched by various search methods such as author, title, subject, or call number to find out what a library owns. Online catalogs will display the call number and the location of the material.” (www.ben.edu/library/help/glossary.htm); “computerized system for finding materials owned by the library. Information includes call number, location, and availability. Electronic equivalent of a card catalog.” (lib.sdstate.edu/Lib24/terminol.htm); 1. The online catalog does not need to be sorted statically; the user can choose author, title, keyword, or systematic order dynamically. 2. Most online catalogs offer a search facility for any word of the title; the goal of the grammatic word order (provide an entry on the word that most users would look for) is reached even better. 3. Many online catalogs allow links between several variants of an author name. So, authors can be found both under the original and the standardised name (if entered properly by the cataloguer). 4. The elimination of paper cards has made the information more accessible to many people with disabilities, such as the visually impaired, wheelchair bound, and those who suffer from mold allergies.” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_catalog) conflict “The struggle between opposing forces--e.g., characters, nations or ideas--that provides the central action and interest in any literary plot. The struggle between the Capulet and Montague families in Romeo and Juliet is a classic example of conflict.” (http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.html); “The plots of most stories centers around conflict. A conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. There are two main kinds of conflict in stories: external and internal. External Conflict. A struggle between a character and an outside force is an external conflict. Characters may face several types of outside forces. The outside force may be another character. It may be the character and the community. The outside force may also be forces of nature. For example, a story might be the main character struggling against the arctic cold. * Man against man. * Man against nature. Internal Conflict. A struggle that takes place in a character's mind is called internal conflict. For example, a character may have to decide between right and wrong or between two solutions to a problem. Sometimes, a character must deal with his or her own mixed feelings or emotions. * Man against himself. The Importance of Conflict. Conflict is necessary to every story. In short stories, there is usually one major conflict. In longer stories, there could be several conflicts. Conflict adds excitement and suspense to a story. The conflict usually becomes clear to the beginning of a story. As the plot unfolds, the reader starts to wonder what will happen next and how the characters will handle the situation. Many readers enjoy trying to predict the final outcome. The excitement usually builds to a high point, or climax. The climax is the turning point of the story. Something has happened to resolve the conflict. Reading for Conflict. As you read a story: 1. identify the main characters 2. decide what conflict they face 3. look for steps they take to settle that conflict 4. see if the steps cause other conflict 5. watch for clues and try to predict what the characters will do 6. enjoy the buildup of suspense 7. put yourself in the story 8. decide if you would have solved the conflict in the same way” (http://www.dowlingcentral.com/MrsD/area/literature/Terms/conflict.html) Strategy for Learning Content Area 1. List all the words from the chapter that you feel may give the students difficulty. After each word, provide space for note-taking. 2. Distribute the words to students. Have them circle all the words which they cannot define. 3. When this is done have the students pair up. Student #1 can ask student #2 to define and use any uncircled (familiar) word on his/her paper in a sentence. When they have discussed those words and feel comfortable with all the uncircled words, they compare meanings of the circled words on either person's paper. When agreement is reached on a word meaning, they should both make sure that it is recorded on their word list sheet. 4. Next, students group in fours and continue the process. A fifth person (the "contact" person) may be added who will be the only person with a dictionary/thesaurus and the textbook. This person may speak only when spoken to, and he/she will settle disputes and look up the words. 5. By this time all the words should be defined. The teacher then asks the "contact" people to report which words were the most difficult. In this way, the list of words will be narrowed to only a few, which the students still should work on. 6. List the reported difficult words in the order that they appear in the text. Have students read the selection, record the page number on which the word first appears, and then verify the definition, changing their original definition when necessary.” (http://www.ops.org/reading/contareavocsec.htm) context “The social or cultural situation in which the spoken or written word occurs and is often used to refer to the material surrounding an unknown word.” (source); “Anything beyond the specific words of a literary work that may be relevant to understanding the meaning. Contexts may be economic, social, cultural, historical, literary, biographical, etc. (http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.html); “the parts of a discourse that surround a word or passage and can throw light on its meaning” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/context); “the set of circumstances or facts that surround a particular event, situation, etc.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/context) contextual “the parts of a discourse that surround a word or passage and can throw light on its meaning” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/contextual) contrast “to compare in order to show unlikeness or differences; note the opposite natures, purposes, etc., of...” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/contrast); “to use examples to show how things are different in one or more important ways” (http://instech.tusd.k12.az.us/Core/glossary/writeglossary.doc) coordinate “to act in harmonious combination.” “To harmonize in a common action or effort: coordinating the moving parts of a machine; coordinate the colors of a design.” “to function together in a concerted way” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/coordinate) correlated (is this the correct definition?) “either of two related things, esp. when one implies the other.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/correlated) critical appreciation “Critical appreciation means the ability to carry out an informed analysis of the particular subject of the course in relation to its historical context, and to arrive at an appreciation of the multiple influences that have shaped the development of the western cultural heritage [Needs to be specific to ancient Israelite literature and the Scriptures]. In addition, critical appreciation of the Western cultural heritage implies that courses will attempt to evaluate that heritage in terms of its merits and weaknesses. It might address such questions as: Why does Western culture gives prominence to some achievements over others? Is Western culture a stable body of achievement, or does it undergo periodic reassessment and redefinition?” (http://www.stolaf.edu/committees/gec/genedrequirements/historical.html); "Critical appreciation" means having smart, sophisticated reasons for liking whatever literature you like, and being able to articulate those reasons for other people, especially in writing. Vital for critical appreciation is the ability to "interpret" a piece of literature, which basically means coming up with a cogent, interesting account of what a piece of lit means, what to do to/for the reader, what technical choices the author's made in order to try to achieve the effect she wants, and so on.” (http://ghost-light.blogspot.com/2008/09/critical-appreciation.html) critical-thinking “the mental process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to reach an answer or conclusion” (http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=critical+thinking) cumulative review “By cumulative review is meant that review which does not merely go back over the material last learned, but afterward goes back again and farther, so as to keep fresh in the mind that which in former years has been acquired with labor, and which carries most of its values only while it is retained in the memory.” (source); “Skills and knowledge will not be retained by most students experiencing difficulties if taught only once or twice and practised for a brief time. Cumulative review means that students are given a task in which examples of the most recently introduced skills are integrated with examples of skills previously taught. Fun formats, such as games and puzzles, can make the review pleasant. Tests, quick quizzes and oral questions can also be used for review. Cumulative review is a critical part of instructional design. Material not learned or remembered may need a different presentation and more practice.” (source) development (is this the correct definition? Context is: Demonstrate knowledge of the development of the chief themes in biblical literature as understood in the ancient Israelite community.) “the act, process, or result of developing” (source) diagnostic assessment “Diagnostic assessment: To diagnose learning difficulties during instruction. The purpose of assessment ideally is to provide feedback about what knowledge and abilities students possess, in order to make appropriate instructional decisions and improve student learning. It attempts to answer two questions: "how are we doing?" and "how can we do it better?" The purpose of the assessment is more broad than a test of content knowledge, which traditionally link to the teacher's instructional objectives.” (source) diagram “A plan, sketch, drawing, or outline designed to demonstrate or explain how something works or to clarify the relationship between the parts of a whole.” (source) differentiated “2. to change; alter. 6. to become unlike or dissimilar; change in character. 7. to make a distinction.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/differentiated) differentiating “to perceive the difference in or between.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/differentiating) direct explanations (modeling) “What Do Good Teachers of Reading Comprehension Do? To bring students to the point of internalizing good reading habits, good teachers employ a number of explicit teaching techniques—the things good reading teachers do. Good teachers provide direct explanations. The teacher explains the comprehension strategy (Duffy, Roehler, Meloth, Vavrus, Book, Putnam, and Wesselman, 1986). These direct explanations must involve both the procedure and the purpose of the strategy if students are to understand how the particular strategy can solve comprehension problems. As the National Reading Panel (NICHHD, 2000a) advised, reading comprehension instruction must also include modeling and supportive guidance if students are to acquire the tools needed to understand text. Good teachers think aloud to foster metacognition (teacher modeling). Baker and Brown (1984) described the role of metacognition in reading as “the ability to reflect on one’s own cognitive processes, to be aware of one’s own activities while reading” (p. 353). Effective reading teachers help students gain this kind of awareness by “thinking aloud,” by modeling “how good readers use comprehension strategies to understand” (Davey, 1983). In this manner, young readers gain insight into how they can use the tools of comprehension.” (source); “Lessons provide a model of what research has confirmed to be critical attributes of effective instruction. These include: • Clear and direct explanations with teacher modeling through Think Alouds and demonstration • Teacher-led practice before students are asked to apply skills independently” (source); “She also specified the teacher’s role in more detail than Collins and Smith (1982) had done by explicitly representing teacher modeling as thinking aloud, providing sample think aloud comments, and suggesting five most important strategies for teachers to model (predicting, visualizing, making analogies, expressing confusion, and demonstrating fix-up strategies such as rereading).” (source) distinguish “to set apart as different; be a distinctive characteristic of; characterize: It is his Italian accent that distinguishes him.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/distinguish) district (I’m not sure if the last definition is the correct one.) “a division of territory, as of a country, state, or county, marked off for administrative, electoral, or other purposes.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/district); “The geographical area served by a community college, which ranges from one to six counties.” (http://www.fldoe.org/cc/glossary.asp) drama “a composition in prose or verse presenting in dialogue or pantomime a story involving conflict or contrast of character, esp. one intended to be acted on the stage; a play.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/drama); “a composition in verse or prose intended to portray life or character or to tell a story usually involving conflicts and emotions through action and dialogue and typically designed for theatrical performance” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/drama); “In its widest sense, a drama is any work designed to be presented by actors on a stage. Similarly, "drama" denotes a broad literary genre that includes a variety of forms, from pageant and spectacle to tragedy and Comedy, as well as countless types and subtypes. More commonly in modern usage, however, a drama is a work that treats serious subjects and themes but does not aim at the grandeur of tragedy. This use of the term originated with the eighteenth-century French writer Denis Diderot, who used the word drame to designate his plays about middle-class life; thus "drama" typically features characters of a less exalted stature than those of tragedy. Examples of classical dramas include Menander's comedy Dyscolus and Sophocles' tragedy Oedipus Rex. Contemporary dramas include Eugene O'Neill's The Iceman Cometh, Lillian Hellman's Little Foxes, and August Wilson's Ma Rainey's Black Bottom. (Compare with Melodrama.) (See also Comedy of Manners, Commedia dell'arte, Epic Theater, Farce, genre, Masque, Revenge Tragedy, Theater of the Absurd, and Theater of Cruelty.)” (http://www.gale.cengage.com/free_resources/glossary/glossary_de.htm#drama); “Types of Drama / Plays + Tragedy + Comedy + Mixed Form Other Serious forms: Heroic Drama Retains parts of tragedy -- heroic or noble characters verse (heroic verse) -- where the kind of drama got its name -- heroic verse consists of "couplets" -- two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter -- and other elevated language extreme situations but differs from tragedy because: usually has a happy ending generally optimistic view, even if ending is sad {Top of Page} Seriocomic Forms A. "melodrama" -- Comes from "Music drama" Good and evil are most clearly defined. Evil is overcome by good. Entanglement of the protagonist in a series of circumstances threatening him or her; eventually rescued or escapes. Most tv series. Many movies: Wronged innocence is vindicated and evil chastised. Like tragedy -- serious action. Like comedy -- happy ending. B. Domestic / Bourgeois Drama Deals with "ordinary" people, from everyday life. Has in the last 150 years replaced both classical tragedy and "heroic" drama as the predominant form of serious drama C. Tragi-Comedy More complex than melodrama. Ends happily, but raises complex issues of love, friendship, cowardice, courage, and death; societal norms, morality concealed identities, misinformation, and coincidence, last-minute revelations. Many modern plays called tragi-comedy. Able to send conflicting messages: laugh, but situation and ending can still be disquieting (MASH, Bonnie and Clyde) D. Mixed Forms: Mingling of forms (some of these are not specifically mentioned in your textbook) Expressionism Theatre of the Absurd -- Ionesco -- tragic farce, anti-play. Ghelderode -- burlesque mystery, tragedy for the music hall. Pinter -- has been called comedy of menace --associated with Theatre of the Absurd Theatre of Cruelty -- Artaud The Epic Theatre of Bertolt Brecht Biomechanics / constructivist of Meyerhold Futurism, Dada, Surrealism” (http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/spd130et/typemixd.htm) draw conclusions “There are several ways to help you draw conclusions from what an author may be implying. The following are descriptions of the various ways to aid you in reaching a conclusion. General Sense The meaning of a word may be implied by the general sense of its context, as the meaning of the word incarcerated is implied in the following sentence: Murderers are usually incarcerated for longer periods of time than robbers. You may infer the meaning of incarcerated by answering the question "What usually happens to those found guilty of murder or robbery?” If you answered that they are locked up in jail, prison, or a penitentiary, you correctly inferred the meaning of incarcerated. Examples When the meaning of the word is not implied by the general sense of its context, it may be implied by examples. For instance, Those who enjoy belonging to clubs, going to parties, and inviting friends often to their homes for dinner are gregarious. You may infer the meaning of gregarious by answering the question "What word or words describe people who belong to clubs, go to parties a lot, and often invite friends over to their homes for dinner?" Antonyms and Contrasts When the meaning of a word is not implied by the general sense of its context or by examples, it may be implied by an antonym or by a contrasting thought in a context. Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings, such as happy and sad. For instance, Ben is fearless, but his brother is timorous. You may infer the meaning of timorous by answering the question "If Ben is fearless and Jim is very different from Ben with regard to fear, then what word describes Jim?" A contrast in the following sentence implies the meaning of credence: Dad gave credence to my story, but Mom's reaction was one of total disbelief. You may infer the meaning of credence by answering the question "If Mom's reaction was disbelief and Dad's reaction was very different from Mom's, what was Dad's reaction?"” (http://academic.cuesta.edu/acasupp/AS/309.HTM) early Christian letters “EARLY CHRISTIAN LETTERS ATTRIBUTED TO PAUL The Letter to the Romans The First Letter to the Corinthians The Second Letter to the Corinthians The Letter to the Galatians The Letter to the Ephesians The Letter to the Philippians The Letter to the Colossians The First Letter to the Thessalonians The Second Letter to the Thessalonians The First Letter to Timothy The Second Letter to Timothy The Letter to Titus The Letter to Philemon GENERAL EPISTLES AND OTHER EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITINGS The Letter to the Hebrews The Letter of James The Letter of 1 Peter The Letter of 2 Peter The Letter of 1 John The Letter of 2 John The Letter of 3 John The Letter of Jude The Letter of 1 Clement The Didache The Letter of Ignatius to the Ephesians The Letter of Ignatius to the Magnesians The Letter of Ignatius to the Trallians The Letter of Ignatius to the Romans The Letter of Ignatius to the Philadelphians The Letter of Ignatius to the Smyrneans The Letter of Ignatius to Polycarp The Letter of Polycarp to the Philippians The Letter of Barnabas The Preaching of Peter The Fragments of Papias” (source); “The earliest form of Christian writing was naturally the letter, the personal communication from man to man or man to group of men, such as first-century Greeks and Romans, and Jews as well, constantly wrote. In the hands of Paul this simplest form of composition had developed into a powerful instrument of religious instruction, and by A.D. 80 the collection and publication of his letters had standardized it as a Christian literary type. This is the background of all the other early Christian letters, particularly of what we know as the Letter of Clement.” (http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0833/_P8.HTM#6) See: source [pp 268-272]; source [pp 188 and after]; and source [pp 36-37] for more info.) early Christianity (See the URL referenced below for more on “early Christianity.”) “Early Christianity is commonly defined as the Christianity of the three centuries between the Crucifixion of Jesus (c. 30) and the First Council of Nicaea (325). The major primary source for first century Christianity (the Apostolic Age) is the Acts of the Apostles, but its historicity is disputed. At first, the church was centered in Jerusalem, and leaders included James, Peter, and John[Galatians 2:9] . Following the Great Commission, the missionary activity of the Apostles, including Paul of Tarsus, spread Christianity to cities throughout the Hellenistic world, such as Alexandria and Antioch, and also to Rome[1] and even beyond the Roman Empire. The term "Christian" was first applied to members of the church at Antioch according to Acts 11:26. The New Testament includes letters written by Paul to churches, such as those in Thessalonica and Corinth, during the years 50-62[2], see also Seven Churches of Asia. Christians continued to revere the Hebrew Bible, using the Septuagint translation that was in general use among Greek-speakers, or the Targums in use among Aramaic-speakers, but added to it their own writings. In 70 the Second Temple was destroyed, and in c. 135 Jews were banned from the renamed city after the Bar Kokhba revolt. Among those who left the city were most of the Christian population.[1] Following this time, early Church historian Eusebius of Caesarea records that ethnically Jewish leadership of the church in Jerusalem (literally those "of the circumcision") was replaced by Gentile leadership.[3] Similarly, Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome in 49, though Nero allowed their return but turned against Christians after the Great Fire of Rome of 64, the beginning of persecution by Roman authorities.[4] Historians debate whether or not the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva's modification of the Fiscus Judaicus in 96. (From then on, practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not.)[5] Christianity spread further during the second century. Notable leaders and writers of this time include Irenaeus of Lyon,[4] Polycarp of Smyrna, Ignatius of Antioch,[4] Clement of Rome, and Justin Martyr. During the third century, Christianity further increased in numbers (Robin Lane Fox suggests that Christians composed about 2% of the Empire by 250[4]). Teachers of this period, including Origen in Alexandria and Tertullian in North Africa, expressed in their writings doctrines such as that of the Trinity. Anthony the Great and others established Christian monasticism, and Gregory the Illuminator was responsible for Armenia becoming the first officially Christian country. Following the conversion of Constantine the Great (just prior to the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312), the Roman Empire tolerated Christianity with the Edict of Milan in 313, leading later to the adoption of Christianity as the state religion in 380 by Theodosius I and the rise of Christendom in the Byzantine empire. What started as a religious movement within first century Judaism therefore became, by the end of this period, the favored religion of the Roman Empire, as well as a significant religion outside the empire.[4] According to Will Durant, the Christian Church prevailed over Paganism because it offered a much more attractive doctrine and because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.[6] The First Council of Nicaea marks the end of this era and the beginning of the period of the first seven Ecumenical Councils (325 - 787).” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christianity) evaluation “A judgment of the effectiveness and reliability of a text in which the writer discusses the extent of his or her disagreement with an author.” (Leonard J. Rosen and Laurence Behrens, The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 4th ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000, 799) explicit “fully revealed or expressed without vagueness, implication, or ambiguity : leaving no question as to meaning or intent <explicit instructions>” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/explicit) expository “Serving to explain; tending to illustrate.” (http://1828.mshaffer.com/d/search/word,expository) fact “Any statement that can be verified.” (Leonard J. Rosen and Laurence Behrens, The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 4th ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000, 799) FCAT “Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test. Students must score a 2 or higher on the 10th grade FCAT to earn a standard high school diploma.” (http://www.fldoe.org/cc/glossary.asp) FCAT specific practice (“test prep”) (Also see “FCAT”) Preparation for the FCAT (Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test) by studying or taking tests, sometimes using tests or quizzes that give questions similar to the ones that will be found in the FCAT. (This is a sentence I made up; I didn’t find anything online that exactly describes FCAT specific practice—Annie) fiction/fictional “A literary work whose content is produced by the imagination and is not necessarily based on fact.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/fictional) figurative “of the nature of or involving a figure of speech, esp. a metaphor; metaphorical; not literal: a figurative expression.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/figurative); “characterized by figures of speech <a figurative description>” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/figurative) figure of speech ~ “A carefully controlled comparison that intensifies meaning. See simile, analogy, and metaphor.” (Leonard J. Rosen and Laurence Behrens, The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 4th ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000, 800); ~ “a form of expression (as a simile or metaphor) used to convey meaning or heighten effect often by comparing or identifying one thing with another that has a meaning or connotation familiar to the reader or listener” (source) flashback ~ “an account of a conversation, episode, or event that happened before the beginning of a story, told for the purpose of clarifying something in the present; often interrupts the chronological flow of the story (source); ~ interruption of chronological sequence (as in a film or literary work) by interjection of events of earlier occurrence” (source) foreshadowing ~ “to show or indicate beforehand” (source); ~ “writer’s use of hints or clues to indicate events that will occur later in a text” (source); ~ “The use of hints or clues in a narrative to suggest what will happen later. Writers use foreshadowing to create interest and to build suspense.” (source) formal report “What is a formal report? A formal report is a document that is written following a fixed procedure and is used to describe an investigation and give results and recommendations based on the investigation. What is the purpose of a formal report? The purpose of a formal report is to investigate a problem or a need, find workable solutions, and make recommendations.” What are the differences between different types of reports? Different types of reports are intended for different audiences and have different purposes. They may deal with different kinds of topics, and therefore use different types of . They may vary greatly in length. However, the general form of most reports is similar. What are the parts of a formal report? Title Summary Introduction Findings and Discussion Conclusions Recommendations Formal reports should be written using formal language.” (http://www.ryerson.ca/studentservices/els/pdf/Academic%20Reports.pdf) function “the action for which a person or thing is specially fitted or used or for which a thing exists: purpose” “function implies a definite end or purpose that the one in question serves or a particular kind of work it is intended to perform” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/function) genres (Also see “literary genres”) “Terms used to classify literary and informational works into categories (e.g., biography, mystery, historical fiction). (source); “A class or category of writing having a particular form. In English we have poetry, prose or drama as the specific forms of writing. Poems are a form of poetry; short stories, novels, biographies, essays are forms of prose; plays are drama.” (source); “A genre is a literary kind — and, in fact, the word means just that in French, a "kind" or "type." The word is used with various degrees of precision. Some, for instance, classify the novel as a genre, and consider the kinds of novels (Bildungsroman, picaresque, Gothic, and so on) "sub-genres." Others consider these specific kinds of novels genres, and consider the term novel a kind of catch-all. The adjective is generic.” (source) Goal 3 Student Performance Standards of the Florida System of School Improvement and Accountability (Context: “This course shall integrate the Goal 3 Student Performance Standards of the Florida System of School Improvement and Accountability as appropriate to the content and processes of the subject matter.”) “GOAL 3 STUDENT PERFORMANCE STANDARDS Standard 1: Information Managers Florida students locate, comprehend, interpret, evaluate, maintain, and apply information, concepts, and ideas in literature, the arts, symbols, recordings, video and other graphic displays, and computer files in order to perform tasks and/or for enjoyment Standard 2: Effective Communicators Florida students communicate in English and other languages using information, concepts, prose, symbols, reports, audio and video recordings, speeches, graphic displays, and computer-based programs. Standard 3: Numeric Problem Solving Florida students use numeric operations and concepts to describe, analyze, disaggregate, communicate, and synthesize numeric data, and to identify and solve problems. Standard 4: Creative and Critical Thinkers Florida students use creative thinking skills to generate new ideas, make the best decisions, recognize and solve problems through reasoning, interpret symbolic data, and develop efficient techniques for lifelong learning. Standard 5: Responsible Workers Florida students display responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, integrity, honesty, and healthy decision-making. Standard 6: Resource Managers Florida students will appropriately allocate time, money, and other resources. Standard 7: System Managers Florida students integrate their knowledge and understanding of how social, organizational, informational, and technological systems work with their abilities to analyze trends, design and improve systems, and use and maintain appropriate technology. Standard 8: Cooperative Workers Florida students work cooperatively to successfully complete a project or activity. Standard 9: Effective Leaders Florida students establish credibility with their colleagues through competence and integrity, and help their peers achieve their goals by communicating their feelings and ideas to justify or successfully negotiate a position which advances goal attainment. Standard 10: Multiculturally Sensitive Citizens Florida students appreciate their own culture and the culture of others, understand the concerns and perspectives of members of other ethnic groups, reject the stereotyping of themselves and others, and seek out and utilize the views of persons of diverse ethnic, social, and educational backgrounds. Standard 11: Involvement of Families Families will share the responsibility of accomplishing the standards set in Goal 3 throughout a student’s education from preschool through twelfth grade.” (http://secondarypgms.brevard.k12.fl.us/Vis%20Art%20ES.pdf) gospels “The first four books of the New Testament, which tell the life story of Jesus and explain the significance of his message. Gospel means “good news” — in this case, the news of the salvation made possible by the death and Resurrection of Jesus. The four Gospels are attributed to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gospels) government publications “What Are Government Publications? • Any information produced by a government agency: city, county, state, federal or international level. • Issued in paper, microfiche, video, CD-ROM, floppy disk, and the Internet. What Are Government Publications Good For? • Academic Research - Governments support and publish some of the most reliable research and statistics. • Legal Research - Governments publish the laws and regulations we live by, the activities of the President, Congress, Governors and Legislatures, the decisions of the Courts, and the activities of departments and agencies of government. • Classroom Materials – Governments publish kits and teaching aids on a large variety of subjects.” (http://arapaho.nsuok.edu/~research/Past%20Events/workshops/What%20Are%20Government%20Publications.pdf); “Government publications are all publications published by the government. They include law reports, statutes, government gazettes, Government Department annual, Commission Reports, debates of the Senate and National Assembly (Hansard), etc.” (http://www.ru.ac.za/static/library/infolit/gov.html); “What are government publications? Government publications are exactly what the name says: all publications published by the government. These include law reports, statutes, government gazettes, etc.” (http://www.lib.uct.ac.za/Training/Infolit/infolit/gov.htm) grade level “a single division of a school classified according to the age or progress of the pupils. In the U.S., public schools are commonly divided into twelve grades below college.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/grade); “What is a grade level? It is an arbitrary designation which, historically, is about 150 years old and was initially invented to help group children for learning in an institutional setting. There are no "grade levels" in the Bible or in history before late 1700's when people began to bring children together to be educated in large groups. Still, if we could have some agreement as to what they mean, they might be of help for us to describe where a child is on the learning scale. Fourth Grade Reading/Spelling: Reads chapter books with understanding; begins critical thinking in reading; learns practical spelling words Writing: Develops previous skills; introduced to business letter, simple first person narrative, simple fictional story, book report and very simple encyclopedia report Math: Masters counting, addition, subtraction and multiplication, introduced to division and fractions Fifth Grade Reading/Spelling: Competent readers and spellers Writing: Continues developing above, introduced to encyclopedia report and poetry Math: Masters division, fractions and decimals; introduced to percents and geometry Sixth Grade Reading/Spelling: Competent readers and spellers Writing: Writes paragraphs, stories and reports, including research report using several sources Math: Masters addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of any amount; competent with fractions, decimals, percentages, and geometry with all 2 and 3-dimensional shapes” (http://www.teach4mastery.com/pdf/grades.pdf.); “In Canada and the United States the grades traditionally begin at 1 and run to 12 (or 11 in some areas[citation needed]); they are referred to by ordinal number (e.g. "third grade") in the United States and by cardinal number ("Grade Three") in Canada. An additional preceding level called Kindergarten is now standard in most areas, and a further preceding level called Preschool education or Nursery school is not uncommon. In the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, as well as some parts of the state of Wisconsin, kindergarten is split further into junior and senior kindergarten. At the secondary school level, grades 9–12 (Senior 1–4 in Canada) are also known as freshman (or "first-year"), sophomore, junior, and senior, especially in the United States. At the post-secondary level (college or university), these terms are used almost exclusively to refer to what would otherwise be grades 13–16, also mainly in the United States. However, at the post-secondary level in Canada, freshman is often called first-year, sophomore as second-year, and so on. These tables outline the ages, in years, of each grade level. However, students are sometimes older because of grade retention or younger because of grade skipping. High school: U.S. Grade Ages Canadian Grade ninth grade, freshman 14–15 Grade 9 tenth grade, sophomore 15–16 Grade 10 eleventh grade, junior 16–17 Grade 11 twelfth grade, senior 17–18 Grade 12 Children typically start school at age five or six. Also, some areas use junior high school, typically grades 7–8 or 9, instead of middle school. The grade configurations vary from school to school and district to district in the United States and Canada. The most common grade configuration in the United States currently is K-5, 6-8 and 9-12 but many other configurations exist.” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_stages) Grade Level Expectations (GLEs) “Statements of expectations for learning at each grade level in language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, visual arts, and music for kindergarten through grade 8.” (http://www.cpt.fsu.edu/ese/glossary.html) Greco-Roman “of or having both Greek and Roman characteristics: the Greco-Roman influence.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Greco-Roman) group diagnostic (As opposed to individual diagnostic measures) “Diagnostic Measure: Assessment conducted at any time during the school year when more in-depth analysis of a student’s strengths and weaknesses is needed to guide instruction.” (http://dibels.uoregon.edu/techreports/dibels_5th_ed.pdf); (the following is the definition for “diagnostic”) “1. of, pertaining to, or used in diagnosis. 2. serving to identify or characterize; being a precise indication.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/diagnostic) guided instruction “During guided instruction, teachers prompt, question, facilitate, or lead students through tasks that increase understanding of a particular text.” (source) historical present (or, dramatic present) “In linguistics and rhetoric, the historical present (sometimes dramatic present) refers to the employment of the present tense when narrating past events. Besides its use in writing about history, especially in historical chronicles (listing a series of events), it is used in fiction, for 'hot news' (as in headlines), and in everyday conversation (Huddleston & Pullum 2002: 129-131). In conversation, it is particularly common with 'verbs of communication' such as tell, write, and say (and in colloquial uses, go) (Leech 2002: 7). Literary critics and grammarians have said that the historical present has the effect of making past events more vivid. More recently, analysts of its use in conversation have argued that it functions, not by making an event present, but by marking segments of a narrative, foregrounding events (that is, signalling that one event is particularly important, relevant to others) and marking a shift to evaluation (Brinton 1992: 221). Examples Following is an excerpt from Dickens' David Copperfield, in which we can see the shift from the past tense to the historical present: “ If the funeral had been yesterday, I could not recollect it better. The very air of the best parlour, when I went in at the door, the bright condition of the fire, the shining of the wine in the decanters, the patterns of the glasses and plates, the faint sweet smell of cake, the odour of Miss Murdstone’s dress, and our black clothes. Mr. Chillip is in the room, and comes to speak to me. 'And how is Master David?' he says, kindly. I cannot tell him very well. I give him my hand, which he holds in his. (Chapter IX) Examples of its use by historians will often be found in the weekly BBC programme with Melvyn Bragg, In Our Time, and some listeners have complained about its use as confusing or affected: “ I don't understand why historians on In Our Time speak of past events in what sounds to me like a form of the present tense, for example: "Aristotle thinks that reason isn't located in space and time". Does anyone else find this annoying ? What's wrong with "Aristotle thought that reason wasn't located in space and time" ? What am I missing ? They all do it every week.” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_present) hypothesis ~ “A carefully stated prediction.” (Leonard J. Rosen and Laurence Behrens, The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 4th ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000, 800); ~ “an assumption or concession made for the sake of argument” ~ “a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences” (source) idiom “Words used in a special way that may be different from their literal meaning (e.g. “you drive me crazy” or “hit the deck”). (source) idiomatic (needs editing for the correct definition—Also see “idiom”) “1. Peculiar to or characteristic of a given language. 2. Characterized by proficient use of idiomatic expressions: a foreigner who speaks idiomatic English. 2. Resembling or having the nature of an idiom. 3. Using many idioms. 4. Peculiar to or characteristic of the style or manner of a particular group or people.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/idiomatic) imagery “figurative language” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/imagery); “1. The use of vivid or figurative language to represent objects, actions, or ideas. 2. The use of expressive or evocative images in art, literature, or music.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/imagery) independent-level reading “The level at which the student reads fluently with excellent comprehension. The accuracy with which the student reads is 95-100 percent.” (source); “texts in which no more than approximately 1 in 20 words is difficult for the reader” (source); “The independent reading level is the highest level at which a child can read easily and fluently: without assistance, with few errors in word recognition, and with good comprehension and recall.” “When reading is easy; we call it Independent Level reading. This, of course, can happen at any stage where the child knows a good 95% or more of the words. ... At the independent level of reading, no matter what child you are talking about, whether he is a lst grade beginning level reader,or a 3rd grade independent level terrific reader, reading at this level of word recognition would entitle the reader to easily skip any unknown words and not lose much, if any, of the message at all!” (source) index “a list (as of bibliographical information or citations to a body of literature) arranged usually in alphabetical order of some specified datum (as author, subject, or keyword): as a: a list of items (as topics or names) treated in a printed work that gives for each item the page number where it may be found” (source) individual diagnostic measures “Diagnostic Measure: Assessment conducted at any time during the school year when more in-depth analysis of a student’s strengths and weaknesses is needed to guide instruction.” (source); (the following is the definition for “diagnostic”) “1. of, pertaining to, or used in diagnosis. 2. serving to identify or characterize; being a precise indication.” (source) inferences (make and confirm) “The reasoning involved in drawing a conclusion or making a logical judgment on the basis of indirect evidence and prior conclusions rather than direct evidence from the text.” (source); “the act or process of inferring.” “1. The act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true. 2. The act of reasoning from factual knowledge or evidence.” (source) information services “Information services are defined in the law as “the furnishing of information of any kind, which has been collected, compiled, or analyzed by the seller, and provided through any means or method, other than personal or individual information which is not incorporated into reports furnished to other people.” The following are examples of “information services”: A business maintains a computer database of statistical information, which is sold to customers. A customer pays a fee for a period of time during which information can be accessed online, with the option to just view it or download and/or print it. No disk or other information is sent to the customer. A business sends severe weather alerts to a customer’s email address or mobile device. Customers are charged an annual fee for this service.” (source) informational text “A form of written composition that has as its primary purpose explanation or the communication of details, facts, and discipline- or content-specific information (e.g., content area textbooks, encyclopedias, biographies).” (source); “Definition: * Nonfiction text (real, not just “realistic”) * Used to inform or explain something to the reading audience * Many different types… Examples: * Newspapers - a daily or weekly publication on folded sheets; contains news and articles and advertisements * Biographies – accounts of the series of events of a person’s life (not Bibliographies) * Autobiographies – biographies of yourself * Almanacs - annual publications of weather forecasts and other information arranged according to the calendar of a given year” (http://sitemaker.umich.edu/katemiller/files/informational_writingday1.ppt.) instructional materials “What are instructional materials? Any informational content that is required as a component for participation in curricular activities; the basis for most assigned readings, discussions, activities and examinations; effectively the raw material for curricular learning.” (http://iss-tech.humboldt.edu/cdc/?q=node/110) instructional goals “Instructional Goals are the skills and/or knowledge the student should possess by the end of the course (or module, or lesson.)” (http://itle.okstate.edu/FD/goalsetting.htm) integrated reading and writing processes (Also see “integrated”) [The following could be an example of integrated reading and writing] “The students performed significantly better on their writing and on summary recalls of their reading comprehension in the condition where the reading and writing tasks were thematically related.” (http://utpjournals.metapress.com/content/b4h7k84260653gt3/) integrated “1. combining or coordinating separate elements so as to provide a harmonious, interrelated whole: an integrated plot; an integrated course of study. 2. organized or structured so that constituent units function cooperatively: an integrated economy.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/integrated) intensive intervention “Q. 21. What exactly is meant by immediate intensive intervention (iii), or 'triple i'? A. Immediate intensive intervention is specifically designed and customized instruction for homogeneous small group or one-on-one reading instruction. It is considered "immediate" because it should begin as soon as the teacher becomes aware that a student is lagging seriously behind in the development of one or more critical reading skills. It involves systematic and explicit instruction that specifically address the student's deficiency in a component skill, and it also involves more frequent progress monitoring on target skills to ensure adequate progress. Immediate, intensive interventions can be provided by the classroom teacher, a reading resource or special education teacher, or a well-trained and supervised paraprofessional. They can be provided both within and outside of the 90 minute reading block. For example, during the small group instructional period within the 90 minute block, a resource teacher could provide an intensive intervention to one small group of students, while the teacher was providing differentiated instruction to another group of students, and the rest of the students were working at independent reading centers. One key to success for intensive interventions is that they must increase the instructional intensity available to the child. To do this, interventions should be offered every day in as small a group as possible, and they should be delivered by a skilled instructor. For more information about organizing and delivering immediate intensive interventions within a school, please see A Principal's Guide to Intensive Reading Interventions for Struggling Readers in Reading First Schools by Joseph Torgesen: http://www.fcrr.org/staffpresentations/Publication1a.pdf (PDF)” (http://www.fcrr.org/curriculum/curriculumInstructionFAQ2.htm) interpersonal “being, relating to, or involving relations between persons” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/interpersonal) interpret “to give or provide the meaning of; explain; explicate; elucidate: to interpret the hidden meaning of a parable.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/interpret+) interpretation (Also see “interpret”) “The act or process of interpreting.” “An explanation or conceptualization by a critic of a work of literature, painting, music, or other art form; an exegesis.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/interpretation) intervention (making adequate progress (accelerated growth) in a given intervention) “the act or fact of interfering with a condition to modify it or with a process to change its course” (source) irony “1. the use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning: the irony of her reply, “How nice!” when I said I had to work all weekend. 2. Literature. a. a technique of indicating, as through character or plot development, an intention or attitude opposite to that which is actually or ostensibly stated. b. (esp. in contemporary writing) a manner of organizing a work so as to give full expression to contradictory or complementary impulses, attitudes, etc., esp. as a means of indicating detachment from a subject, theme, or emotion. (source) language arts strands “In the Sunshine State Standards, the strands name the major categories of content within a subject area. For example, in Language Arts, there are strands for Reading; Writing; Listening, Viewing, and Speaking; Language; and Literature.” (source) leveled materials “What Is a Leveled Book Collection? A leveled book collection is a large set of books organized in levels of difficulty from the easy books that an emergent reader might begin to the longer, complex books that advanced readers will select. In some schools, the collection is housed in a central area. There are multiple copies of many books. There might be ten levels for grades K–1 and three or four levels for each later grade. A leveled book set has several advantages, including the following: * An organized set of books makes it easier to select books for groups of children. * Having a gradient of text provides a way to assess children's progress over time. * A book collection is established that does not need to be replaced but is revised and expanded over time. * As the collection expands, the varieties of text will provide opportunities for children to increase their reading power through experiencing diverse texts. It is also crucial to provide variety within each level. Readers who experience only one kind of book may develop a narrow range of strategies for processing text. Instead, we want young readers to use their skills in a flexible way for many different purposes. A leveled collection may be constructed simply by gathering a large set of books and working with colleagues to evaluate the texts. Using your experiences in teaching children, you will find that you can place books along a continuum of difficulty. Of course, your initial rankings should be tested with children over a period of time. Gradually, categories will become more stable. Many groups of teachers have worked with their collections over several years, periodically coming together to discuss books, revise levels, and add new books. As you discuss books, you will discover that you are also talking about the children and their reading behavior. You will be getting to know both the books and the readers. Some Criteria for Leveling Books No single aspect or characteristic of text can be used to evaluate reading material. In placing a text along a gradient of difficulty, many factors are considered. * Length — Consider the number of pages, the number of words, and the number of lines on the page. Books for beginners will have just one or two lines on a page. * Layout — Beginners need texts with a large font and clear spaces between words and lines. Sentences begin on the left and print is clearly separated from pictures. In more complex books, sentences begin in the middle of lines or are carried over onto the next page. Fonts become smaller. * Structure and Organization — Early books have simple plots and some repetition. Some books use repeating episodes or complex plots organized chronologically. As books become more challenging, more interpretation will be needed. * Illustrations — Easier books provide pictures to support the reader in gaining meaning and solving words. Picture support gradually decreases as you move up the gradient of difficulty. * Words — Beginning books use high-frequency words, text with regular spelling words, and content words reinforced by pictures. More challenging texts use multi-syllabic words and a wider range vocabulary to express meaning. * Phrases and Sentences — The gradient begins with very simple sentences and goes on to include longer, more complex sentences with embedded clauses. * Literary Features — Consider the complexity of the ideas. What must readers understand about the characters, setting, and plot to read this book with understanding? Literary features such as flashbacks or metaphors may introduce a challenge. * Content and Theme — Books for young children will focus on topics and themes that are familiar to them. Complexity gradually increases to ideas and topics that children would not experience in everyday lives. Some sophisticated themes require maturity for understanding and may mean that a book is more challenging, even if other factors make it seem easy.” (source) listening competencies (Also see “competency”) (The Sunshine State Standards listening competencies may be different from the following.) “Speaking and Listening Competencies for College Students Table 1: Expected Student Outcomes for Speaking and Listening: Basic Communication Course and General Education “II. LISTENING COMPETENCIES Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and or nonverbal messages. People listen in order to comprehend information, critique and evaluate a message, show empathy for the feelings expressed by others, or appreciate a performance. Effective listening includes both literal and critical comprehension of ideas and information transmitted in oral language. In order to be a COMPETENT LISTENER, a person must be able to listen with literal comprehension. Specifically, the competent listener should be able to exhibit the following competencies by demonstrating the abilities included under each statement. A. RECOGNIZE MAIN IDEAS. 1. Distinguish ideas fundamental to the thesis from material that supports those ideas. 2. Identify transitional, organizational, and nonverbal cues that direct the listener to the main ideas. 3. Identify the main ideas in structured and unstructured discourse. B. IDENTIFY SUPPORTING DETAILS. 1. Identify supporting details in spoken messages. 2. Distinguish between those ideas that support the main ideas and those that do not. 3. Determine whether the number of supporting details adequately develops each main idea. C. RECOGNIZE EXPLICIT RELATIONSHIPS AMONG IDEAS. 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the types of organizational or logical relationships. 2. Identify transitions that suggest relationships. 3. Determine whether the asserted relationship exists. D. RECALL BASIC IDEAS AND DETAILS. 1. Determine the goal for listening. 2. State the basic cognitive and affective contents, after listening. The COMPETENT LISTENER must also listen with critical comprehension. Specifically, the competent listener should exhibit the following competencies by demonstrating the abilities included under each statement. A. ATTEND WITH AN OPEN MIND. 1. Demonstrate an awareness of personal, ideological, and emotional biases. 2. Demonstrate awareness that each person has a unique perspective. 3. Demonstrate awareness that one's knowledge, experience, and emotions affect listening. 4. Use verbal and nonverbal behaviors that demonstrate willingness to listen to messages when variables such as setting, speaker, or topic may not be conducive to listening. B. PERCEIVE THE SPEAKER'S PURPOSE AND ORGANIZATION OF IDEAS AND INFORMATION. 1. Identify the speaker's purpose. 2. Identify the organization of the speaker's ideas and information. C. DISCRIMINATE BETWEEN STATEMENTS OF FACT AND STATEMENTS OF OPINION. 1. Distinguish between assertions that are verifiable and those that are not. D. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN EMOTIONAL AND LOGICAL ARGUMENTS. 1. Demonstrate an understanding that arguments have both emotional and logical dimensions. 2. Identify the logical characteristics of an argument. 3. Identify the emotional characteristics of an argument. 4. Identify whether the argument is predominantly emotional or logical. E. DETECT BIAS AND PREJUDICE. 1. Identify instances of bias and prejudice in a spoken message. 2. Specify how bias and prejudice may affect the impact of a spoken message. F. RECOGNIZE THE SPEAKER'S ATTITUDE. 1. Identify the direction, intensity, and salience of the speaker's attitude as reflected by the verbal messages. 2. Identify the direction, intensity, and salience of the speaker's attitude as reflected by the nonverbal messages. G. SYNTHESIZE AND EVALUATE BY DRAWING LOGICAL INFERENCES AND CONCLUSIONS. 1. Draw relationships between prior knowledge and the information provided by the speaker. 2. Demonstrate an understanding of the nature of inference. 3. Identify the types of verbal and nonverbal information. 4. Draw valid inferences from the information. 5. Identify the information as evidence to support views. 6. Assess the acceptability of evidence. 7. Identify patterns of reasoning and judge the validity of arguments. 8. Analyze the information and inferences in order to draw conclusions. H. RECALL THE IMPLICATIONS AND ARGUMENTS. 1. Identify the arguments used to justify the speaker's position. 2. State both the overt and implied arguments. 3. Specify the implications of these arguments for the speaker, audience, and society at large. I. RECOGNIZE DISCREPANCIES BETWEEN THE SPEAKER'S VERBAL AND NONVERBAL MESSAGES. 1. Identify when the nonverbal signals contradict the verbal message. 2. Identify when the nonverbal signals understate or exaggerate the verbal message. 3. Identify when the nonverbal message is irrelevant to the verbal message. J. EMPLOY ACTIVE LISTENING TECHNIQUES WHEN APPROPRIATE. 1. Identify the cognitive and affective dimensions of a message. 2. Demonstrate comprehension by formulating questions that clarify or qualify the speaker's content and affective intent. 3. Demonstrate comprehension by paraphrasing the speaker's message.” (source) literary forms (Biblical) “Here are a few possible subgenres or literary forms you might encounter: • Apocalyptic literature • Hebrew poetry • Law or legal terms • Narratives • Parables • Speeches • Wisdom sayings • Prose • Allegory” (http://library.olivet.edu/pubserv/guides/religion/exegesis/Building_materials/literary_issues.html) [This should be expanded to include other literary forms not included in the Bible. See form] form see literary form “The external appearance or structure of a literary work. An example of a literary work in short story form is Nathanial Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown"; ballads, sonnets, sestinas and haikus are examples of poetic forms.” (http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.html) Types of Text and Examples Descriptive/Sensory - Journal or Diary Entries - Descriptions of Objects, Places, or Persons - Character Sketches - Observation Essays - Travel Brochures - Poems (e.g., free verse, haiku, cinquain, acrostic) Narrative/Imaginative - Real or Fictional Journal Entries - Anecdotes - Autobiographical Incidents - Memoirs - Eyewitness Accounts - Dialogues - Historical Fiction - Short Stories - Play Scripts - TV/Movie Scripts - Folk Tales - Narrative Poems - Feature Articles Informative/Practical - Learning Logs - “How to” Instructions - Recipes - Class Notes - Meeting Minutes - Posters - Friendly Letters - Business Letters - Summaries - Reports - Interviews - Biographies - Newspaper Articles - Applications - Résumés Expository/Analytical/Persuasive - Learning Log Reflections - Analyses - Letters to the Editor - Editorials - Speeches - Reviews - Interpretative Essays - Issue Essays - Persuasive Essays - I-search Papers - Research Papers literary analysis “What is Literary Analysis? • It’s literary • It’s an analysis It’s-- • An Argument! • It may also involve research on and analysis of secondary sources How is it “literary”? • Usually, a literary analysis will involve a discussion of a text as writing, thus the term literary, which means “having to do with letters” • This will involve the use of certain concepts that are very specifically associated with literature What is an Analysis? An analysis of a literary work may discuss • How the various components of an individual work relate to each other • How two separate literary works deal with similar concepts or forms • How concepts and forms in literary works relate to larger aesthetic, political, social, economic, or religious contexts How is Literary Analysis an Argument? • When writing a literary analysis, you will focus on specific attribute(s) of the text(s). • When discussing these attributes, you will want to make sure that you are making a specific, arguable point (thesis) about these attributes. • You will defend this point with reasons and evidence drawn from the text.” (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/media/ppt/20071017015107_697.ppt) literary (text) (Also see “literature”) “concerning literature or the writing of books” (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/literary) literary characteristics (Also see “literature”) literary “concerning literature or the writing of books” (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/literary) characteristic “a distinguishing trait, quality, or property” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/characteristic); “A feature that helps to identify, tell apart, or describe recognizably; a distinguishing mark or trait.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/characteristic) literary genres “Categories used to classify literary works, usually by form, technique, or content (e.g., novel, essay, short story, comedy, epic).” (source); “categories used to group different types of literary work, such as non-fiction, fiction and poetry.” (source); “A literary genre is a category of composition. Genres may be determined by a particular style, form, technique, tone, content, or length.” (source); “When teaching children, how do we define literary genres? We can say that we divide literary works into genres as a way of classifying them into particular categories. The two major categories, or genres, are Fiction (about things, events, and characters which are not true) or Nonfiction (about things, events, and people which are based on fact). From those two major categories, we can classify even further. For example, Fiction can be divided into poetry, drama (plays), or prose (ordinary writing). Those categories tell us something about the form of the work. Further, we also classify Fiction according to layout and style. There are picture books, which contain words and pictures, novellas or short novels, and short stories, which are much shorter than a novella. Finally, Fiction can be classified by content and theme. Here is where we find our common genres: adventure stories, science fiction/fantasy, mystery, horror, romance, realistic fiction, and historical fiction. One thing to keep in mind while teaching about genres: these categories aren’t always clear-cut. You can have a crime/mystery story set in the future (science fiction) or in the past (historical fiction).” (source); “A literary genre refers to the traditional divisions of literature of various kinds according to a particular criterion of writing. See the list of literary genres. List of literary genres * Autobiography, Memoir, Spiritual autobiography * Biography * Diaries and Journals * Electronic literature * Erotic literature * Slave narrative * Thoughts, Proverbs * Fiction o Adventure novel o Children's literature o Comic novel o Crime fiction + Detective fiction o Fable, Fairy tale, Folklore o Fantasy (for more details see Fantasy subgenres; fantasy literature) o Gothic fiction (initially synonymous with horror) o Historical fiction o Horror o Medical novel o Mystery fiction o Philosophical novel o Political fiction o Romance novel + Historical romance o Saga, Family Saga o Satire o Science fiction (for more details see Science fiction genre) o Thriller + Conspiracy fiction + Legal thriller + Psychological thriller + Spy fiction/Political thriller o Tragedy” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature#Genres_of_literature) main idea “The gist of a passage; central thought; the chief topic of a passage expressed or implied in a word or phrase; the topic sentence of a paragraph; a statement in sentence form which gives the stated or implied major topic of a passage and the specific way in which the passage is limited in content or reference.” (source); “the concept, thought, notion, or impression that is of greatest importance or influence * literal – adhering to fact or to the primary meaning or intent * implied –a suggested meaning or intent (as opposed to explicit) * explicit – fully revealed or expressed without vagueness, implication, or ambiguity; leaving no question as to the meaning or intent” (source) manuscript “A book, document, or other composition written by hand. 1. the original text of an author's work, handwritten or now usually typed, that is submitted to a publisher. 2. any text not printed. 3. a book or document written before the invention of printing. 4. writing, as distinguished from print.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/manuscripts) metaphor “A figure of speech that compares two things without using the word like or as (e.g., laughter is the best medicine)” (source). “a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them (as in drowning in money)” (source) methods of academic study [of the history and literature of ancient Israel] method “1. a procedure, technique, or way of doing something, esp. in accordance with a definite plan: There are three possible methods of repairing this motor. 2. a manner or mode of procedure, esp. an orderly, logical, or systematic way of instruction, inquiry, investigation, experiment, presentation, etc.: the empirical method of inquiry.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/method) academic “1. of or pertaining to a college, academy, school, or other educational institution, esp. one for higher education: academic requirements. 6. acquired by formal education, esp. at a college or university: academic preparation for the ministry.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/academic) study “2. the cultivation of a particular branch of learning, science, or art: the study of law.” 5. research or a detailed examination and analysis of a subject, phenomenon, etc.: She made a study of the transistor market for her firm. (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/study) methods of development “What are methods of development? A method of development is a strategy for organizing a piece of writing. These patterns of development help us sort out information and shape paragraphs and essays. You have already used two different methods, description and narration, so now you will be looking at 5 others. 1. Cause and Effect (p. 137) 2. Comparison and Contrast (183) 3. Analogy (219) 4. Classification (243) 5. Process Analysis (271)” (source); “Methods of development are patterns of organization that writers use to organize their ideas about a topic. Although a lot of writing you will come across does not rely solely on one method of development, an understanding of these patterns will help you organize your ideas and get you writing more quickly. Choosing a Method of Development An understanding of different methods of development and when to use them can save you valuable time in starting and organizing your essay. Many, if not most, essays by professional writers will contain elements of several types of development. A piece in the travel section of a newspaper could include narration, description, compare and contrast, classification, and illustration or example. A typical article on new cars in the auto section will likely be developed using both a classification and compare and contrast approach. Take some time to decide what you want to say and then decide which method of development will be the most effective in presenting your ideas. You don't have to slavishly adhere to a single form of development. Think of methods of development as writing tools to help you organize and focus your writing. Following are some common methods of development with some tips on how to organize and develop your essay. Narration A narrative paragraph or essay: * Tells a story * Explains how something happened Generally, when writing a narrative paragraph you will usually relate events in the order in which they occurred. Your topic sentence should identify the situation or event and prepare the reader for a story. An effective narrative is more than just a chronological run through of the things that happen to you in a typical day. It should contain some element of drama and tension. You can write an engaging narrative about topics like losing your wallet, discovering that a friend has lied to you, or finding or getting fired from your first job. Keep in mind that in a narrative essay your readers are not looking for information; they are looking for some dramatic interest or conflict in your story. They want to be entertained or emotionally engaged. Most narratives are written from the first person (the "I") point of view as in the following example. Process (also called how to, time order, process analysis) A process paragraph or essay: * explains how to do something in a series of steps * explains how something works Process writing need not be limited to concrete practical subjects such as building a doghouse or installing drywall. A process paragraph or essay might tell you how to plan a budget holiday, prepare for final exams, get a deal on a used car, or revive a sputtering romance. Pick a subject you know about and explain the process in logical steps. Consider all the information your reader would need in order to follow your instructions. Avoid topics like how to tie your shoes or how to bake an apple pie which are unlikely to excite a reader. If you work out regularly, you might write about the steps to improved physical fitness. If you fish, you might offer advice on how to prepare yourself for a fishing trip. Write about what you know, and search for a unique slant on your topic. Process essays that give instructions are most often written in the second person. Address the reader directly as you, but recall that there is an implied you in imperative (command) sentences. For example in the sentence, "Remove the lid.", the subject you is understood but not directly stated. Note how the reader is addressed and how the steps are organized in the following process paragraphs. Classification A classification paragraph or essay: * explains a subject by dividing into types or categories Although we may not think about it much, we are constantly classifying things by breaking them into types, groups or categories. By classifying things, we better understand the distinct qualities of two subjects in the same general group. If we are shopping for a new bicycle, we have probably gone through a process of classification. Do we want a road bike, a mountain bike, or a hybrid bike? By breaking down the larger category of bikes into different types of bikes, we are better able to understand the key features of different types of bikes and choose the type that best suits our needs. Begin your classification paragraph or essay by breaking down your subject into at least three distinct groups or categories. Examples: types of parenting styles could include strict, liberal, and permissive; types of video games could include role-playing, simulation, and shoot-em-up; types of dogs could include family pets, show dogs, and working dogs. However you break down your topic you should identify the basis for the classification. What are the qualities that distinguish each of your categories? If you are classifying drivers you might group them into reckless, sensible, and overly cautious. Your basis for classification then would be how they drive. You might point to some specific examples to illustrate some of their driving behaviours and you might make the link between driving styles and personality. Division A division paragraph or essay: * explains a subject by dividing it into its essential parts Division is sometimes confused with classification, but it works a little differently. For example, if you were classifying restaurants, you might group them into fast food, ethnic, family, and gourmet. Approaching the subject of restaurants with a view to developing your essay through division, you would look at the qualities or the parts of a good restaurant such as food, service and atmosphere. In a division essay you identify and explain the essential qualities that make up the whole. What are the qualities of the ideal city, job or friend? For some, the characteristics of the ideal city might include a pleasant climate, an attractive physical setting, and an active cultural scene, while for others ideal characteristics might include an active night life, cheap rents, good beaches, and a high numbers of single young people. Your ideal job might directly use your education and skills, present constant new challenges, and allow you to work independently. An ideal friend would be loyal, fun to be with, and mentally stimulating. You can use the same approach for any number of topics. Once you have defined the essential parts, you have the basic structure of your essay laid out. An essay about what makes a great action movie could be organized effectively using a division model. Your introduction could point out that in order for an action movie to be great, three elements—acting, screenplay, and special effects—must be convincing and work well together. Each of your body paragraphs would focus on one of these elements. Comparison and Contrast A comparison and contrast paragraph or essay: * explains how two subjects are similar or different In our daily lives we constantly make comparisons. We compare breakfast serials, TV shows, teachers, music, girlfriends and boyfriends, jobs, etc. In fact we compare almost everything to something else. Then we make choices about what we like or don't like and about what we want or definitely don't want. We often don't give much thought as to how we are making these comparisons, but usually there is an underlying logic. By making comparisons carefully, we can make can make better choices. For example, if we are looking for a new computer we will probably look at several manufacturers and models and then make our decision. We may compare on the basis of price, features, brand reputation, and service quality. Once we have weighed all these points, we'll decide what model to buy and where to buy it. We've all been through this process, but rarely have we had to write about it. Writing out our thoughts not only helps us better understand the reasons for making a decision, but can help others make more informed choices. A comparison and contrast composition is a formal way of organizing our thoughts. It explains the differences and similarities between two subjects and helps us evaluate subjects to understand their advantages and disadvantages, or strengths and weaknesses. If we're looking for an apartment, we compare and contrast the cost, size, location, and condition of various apartments before we make a choice. When you really think about it, most consumerism is one big exercise in comparison and contrast. When purchasing a car, a toaster, a computer, or even a bottle of shampoo, most people compare several makes, models, or manufacturers. To compare two subjects, you first have to decide what the basis of your comparison is. When comparing two cars you are thinking about buying, you might look at styling, dependability record, performance, standard features, and comfort. When you have completed your comparison you can make a more informed choice. A good way to begin organizing a comparison and contrast paragraph is by dividing your page into two columns and writing the name of your two points of comparison at the top of each column. The Divide and List approach will make it easier to decide upon the organization pattern that will work best for your paragraph. Suppose you want to compare the advantages and disadvantages of commuting by bus rather than by car under the general title of "Transportation Choices". Place a title at the top of the page and divide the page into two columns, one for car and one for bus. Cause and Effect Cause and effect: * explains the reasons (causes) why something happened * describes the results (effects) of an event, action, or condition There are many times when you are asked to examine a cause and effect relationship. When we visit a doctor, the doctor usually questions us carefully to determine the cause of our illness. Causes are the reasons that something happened; the causes of pollution, divorce, heart disease, anorexia, etc., can be identified and presented so that the reader gains a better knowledge of how the causes brought about certain results. Similarly, when we think of effects, we often think of benefits or advantages such as the benefits of exercise or the advantages of self-employment. Or we could look at the negative effects of a cause such as divorce, alcoholism, or global warming. Generally, in a paragraph or short essay, it is better to deal with either causes or effects. Before you start writing, you should be clear on whether you will be dealing mostly with causes or effects. We often examine causes so that we can learn how to prevent things from happening again. Researchers look at causes of heart disease so that they can educate people on how to avoid behaviours such as high fat diets and sedentary lifestyles that contribute to heart disease. We may focus on effects to convince someone that something—becoming a vegetarian for example—is a good idea because of the health benefits. In a paragraph focusing on effects you should clearly indicate the cause—an earthquake, for example—and then spend the rest of the paragraph detailing and explaining the specific effects. these might include damage to buildings, injuries to people, and mass psychological trauma. In a paragraph focusing on cause, state the effect (or result) in your opening and then go on to explain why this result came about. For example, in a paragraph on divorce or marriage breakdown you might look at causes such as incompatibility, infidelity, substance abuse, and neglect among others. Example (also called Illustration) An example paragraph or essay: * makes a point about a topic by providing examples to support it An article about growing violence in kids' sports might include several examples which illustrate how violence has gotten out of hand in some situations. An essay about the dangers of drinking and driving could be made stronger by including several examples of the results of drinking and driving. Description A descriptive paragraph or essay: * Desribes a person, thing, place or situation. Unlike a narrative writing, descriptive writing does not tell a story but rather tries to convey a clear impression of what something is like. Effective descriptive writing relies on specific words and phrases that create a clear picture in the reader's mind. Describing a house as unusual looking doesn't help the reader visualize the house. However, if you note the lime green paint and fake Greek columns, the reader will start to form a mental picture. Avoid words like interesting, nice, great, etc. which reveal nothing about the real nature of the topic. Look for specific words to describe sights, sounds, smells and both physical and emotional feelings. Try to make your reader see and feel the object or situation you are describing. Compare these two sentences: Music came from the car as it drove by. Full volume Led Zepplin screamed from the old Camaro as it sped by. The second version provides specific details about the music and the car that help the reader picture the scene more clearly. Look for a pattern to help you organize your description. When describing a room you might talk about the size and shape of the room, and then about the furniture, and then about the possessions of the occupant. When describing people you could look at their dress, their general body type, and their facial features. In a descriptive essay about a person you might deal with personality, physical features, and lifestyle as a way of organizing your ideas. When brainstorming or making a list for descriptive writing, look at your list of points and try to find ways to make them more specific. For example: A pile of junk becomes a pile of worn out shoes, broken tennis rackets and cracked ski goggles. Persuasion (also called Argument) A persuasive paragraph: * tries to persuade the reader to accept your point of view or even to change his or her point of view In persuasive writing you take a clear position and then present evidence to support your position. If, for example, you believe that the penalties for drinking and driving are too light, then your basic organization might look something like this: Topic: Penalties for drinking and driving are too light Points to support your argument: * people should be responsible for their actions when they drink * cars are weapons in the hands of a drunk driver—drunk driving is a form of assault * all situations involving drunk drivers have the potential for serious consequences * drunk drivers responsible for most accidents * drunk drivers often get a slap on the wrist while victims suffer for a long time * stiff penalties would reduce drunk driving * other drivers pay through increased insurance costs” (http://rbigausk.disted.camosun.bc.ca/6methodsofdev6.htm) text structure [compare to method of development] “What is text structure? Text structure is the way in which an author organizes the text in order to communicate the content. Often, an author uses more than one text structure. For example, a recount of an event might be told sequentially, but an author might also compare and contrast information within the sequence of events. Some common nonfiction text structures are: ~ Cause and Effect: provides reasons or gives explanations for how or why something happens ~ Problem and Solution: problems are identified and solutions are discussed ~ Question and Answer: a question is posed, followed by a specific answer ~ Compare and Contrast: discusses two ideas and examines how they are alike and/or different ~ Description: main ideas are supported by descriptive details ~ Sequence: information is given in a particular order Why is text structure important? When students understand how a text is organized, they are more likely to identify the relationship of ideas, comprehend, and retain the information read. Also, students who develop an understanding of text structure are more likely to transfer this knowledge to their writing. How can you support student understanding of text structure? Most nonfiction texts contain language that signals the reader about how the text is structured. For example, words such as while, but, either, and unlike, signal the reader that the author is comparing and contrasting information. Words such as because and since signal a cause and effect structure. Adjectives and prepositional phrases often signal a descriptive text structure. Call students’ attention to how the author uses language to organize the text, and discuss with students why the author might have chosen a particular structure to communicate the content.” (source); “TEXT STRUCTURE refers to the characteristics of written material and the way ideas in a text are constructed and organized.” (source); “What is text structure? • Text structure refers to the internal organization of a text • As authors write a text to communicate an idea, they will use a structure that goes along with the idea (Meyer 1985) • Suppose an author wanted to show how hawks and owls compare • The author would help the reader to understand the similarities and differences by using words and phrases such as similarity, difference, on the other hand, also, and as well • The author would be using the text structure of compare and contrast • A nonfiction text can have one overall text structure, or several different text structures • For example, a page from a social studies textbook may be written in chronological order, but contain a paragraph that explains a cause and effect What are the common text structures? • It’s important to understand that there is no “official” list of text structures • Different writers have different lists of text structures • Check your state standards for the exact terminology in your state • Chronological order • Also known as time order, sequence, or temporal order • This structure is organized from one point in time to another Chronological order • Transition words such as first, next, later, and finally are included to help the reader understand how events relate to one another • Dates and times are also used • Chronological order • This is one of the easiest text structures for students to understand, since it matches the way that they experience the world • Cause and effect • This text structure shows how one or more causes led to one or more effects • This text structure also has a strong time component, since causes come before effects • Cause and effect • Transition words such as cause, effect, as a result, consequently, and because are used • Time order transitions are also used, which can lead to some confusion for students • Cause and effect • Another complication is that many texts do not include just one cause leading to one effect—instead, there may be several causes and several effects • Problem and solution • This text structure presents a problem, and shows how it can be (or has been) solved • This text structure can be confused with cause and effect • Problem and solution • The key difference is that problem and solution always has a solution, while cause and effect does not • Transitions may include problem, solution, solve, effect, hopeful, and so forth • Compare and contrast • This text structure shows how two or more ideas or items are similar or different • This text structure is also fairly easy for students to understand • The text may use a clustered approach, with details about one topic followed by details about the other • The text may also show an alternating approach, with the author going back between the two topics • Compare and contrast • Transition words may include like, similar, unlike, on the other hand, also, and too • Compare and contrast paragraphs are often embedded in other text structures as an author needs to explain a similarity or difference • Description • This text structure shows what an item or place is like • Transitions in this structure might include spatial words, such as next to, on top of, beside, and so forth” (source); “Expository text is structured in certain ways. The five text structures that students are most likely to encounter are cause-effect, compare/contrast, description, problem/solution, and chronological or time order.” (source) methods of appeal “What does this mean? Basically, methods of appeal and persuasive devices are just ways that the author tries to get the reader to understand, identify with, or even go along with his or her purpose or point of view. These are particularly important in persuasive writing when the author wants the reader to side with his point of view. What does the author use in his writing to convince his audience? Some examples of possible methods of appeal include: 1. Specific examples 2. Facts and statistics 3. Opinions from influential people and/or experts 4. [PATHOS] Emotional pleas or influences 5. Descriptive language and/or details 6. Use of humor 7. [LOGOS] Logical reasoning” (Barron’s How to Prepare for the FCAT By Claudine A. Townley— source) persuasion techniques ~~~ Good resources (here) (here) Divided between pathos or emotion, logos or logic, and ethos or credibility/character. [others?] [See LA.A.2.4.5 under Remedial and others?] ~~~ “persuasive techniques: devices of persuasion used for the purpose of changing one’s mind, making one take action, or both; usually accomplished by a combination of emotional appeals and logical reasoning (e.g., bandwagon, peer pressure, circular reasoning, transfer, loaded words, testimonial, false causality, oversimplification, overgeneralization)” (source) persuasive (writing) “Writing that convinces the designated audience to support a point of view, make a decision, or take an action” (source) 4. emotional appeals “Aristotle taught that a speaker's ability to persuade is based on how well the speaker appeals to his or her audience in three different areas: ethos (ethical appeals), pathos (emotional appeals), and logos (logical appeals). "Pathos" refers to the argument's "emotional appeals," that is, how well the writer taps into the reader's emotions. Many times, this appeal is how a writer will make an argument "matter" to readers. Advertisements do it all the time. Perhaps a writer will offer an anecdote to illustrate suffering or appeal to readers as parents concerned for their children. Does the writer appeal to your emotions—feelings of sadness, pride, fear, being young, anger, patriotism, love, justice? On the other hand, is the essay loaded with facts, figures, and nothing else? Is the emotional appeal effective or overwhelming?” (source); “Pathos (Emotional) means persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions. We can look at texts ranging from classic essays to contemporary advertisements to see how pathos, emotional appeals, are used to persuade. Language choice affects the audience's emotional response, and emotional appeal can effectively be used to enhance an argument.” (source); “Pathos or the emotional appeal appeals to an audience's needs, values, and emotional sensibilities. Argument emphasizes reason, but used properly there is often a place for emotion as well. Emotional appeals can use sources such as interviews and individual stories to paint a more legitimate and moving picture of reality or illuminate the truth. For example, telling the story of a single child who has been abused may make for a more persuasive argument than simply the number of children abused each year because it would give a human face to the numbers. Only use an emotional appeal if it truly supports the claim you are making, not as a way to distract from the real issues of debate. An argument should never use emotion to misrepresent the topic or frighten people.” (source) ethical (appeals) “Ethos (Credibility), or ethical appeal, means convincing by the character of the author. We tend to believe people whom we respect. One of the central problems of argumentation is to project an impression to the reader that you are someone worth listening to, in other words making yourself as author into an authority on the subject of the paper, as well as someone who is likable and worthy of respect.” (source); "Ethos" refers to the writer's "ethical appeal," that is, how well the writer presents herself. Does she seem knowledgeable and reasonable? Does she seem trustworthy? Does she treat her opponents, people who might disagree, with fairness and respect, or does she take cheap shots at them? Does she try to establish common ground with the reader? Why do you think essays that lack this kind of appeal are likely to be unconvincing? What effect do you think it would have if a writer included nothing but ethical appeals?” (source); “Ethos or the ethical appeal is based on the character, credibility, or reliability of the writer.There are many ways to establish good character and credibility as an author: * Use only credible, reliable sources to build your argument and cite those sources properly. * Respect the reader by stating the opposing position accurately. * Establish common ground with your audience, often this can be done by acknowledging values and beliefs shared by those on both sides of the argument. * If appropriate for the assignment, disclose why you are interested in this topic or what personal experiences you have had with the topic. * Organize your argument in a logical, easy to follow manner. You can use the Toulmin method of logic or a simple pattern such as chronological order, most general to most detailed example, earliest to most recent example, etc. * Proofread the argument. Too many careless grammar mistakes cast doubt on your character as a writer.” (source) 7. logical (appeals) “Logos" corresponds with the argument's "logical appeals," that is, how well the reader uses the "text" of his own argument and evidence. Effective arguments will probably include facts and other supporting details to back up the author's claims. They may contain testimony from authorities and will demonstrate the writer's carefulness in choosing and considering evidence. They are likely to be well organized, skillfully written, and well edited/proofread. Questions to consider: What is being argued here, or what is the author's thesis? What points does he offer to support this idea? Has he presented arguments that seem logical, or does he seem to be jumping to conclusions? Can you think of kinds of writing that rely exclusively on logical appeals? Do they bore you?” (source); “Logos (Logical) means persuading by the use of reasoning. This will be the most important technique we will study, and Aristotle's favorite. We'll look at deductive and inductive reasoning, and discuss what makes an effective, persuasive reason to back up your claims. Giving reasons is the heart of argumentation, and cannot be emphasized enough. We'll study the types of support you can use to substantiate your thesis, and look at some of the common logical fallacies, in order to avoid them in your writing.” (source); “Logos or the appeal to reason relies on logic or reason. Logos often depends on the use of inductive or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning takes a specific representative case or facts and then draws generalizations or conclusions from them. Inductive reasoning must be based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence, in other words the facts you draw on must fairly represent the larger situation or population. Example: Fair trade agreements have raised the quality of life for coffee producers, so fair trade agreements could be used to help other farmers as well. In this example the specific case of fair trade agreements with coffee producers is being used as the starting point for the claim. Because these agreements have worked the author concludes that it could work for other farmers as well. Deductive reasoning begins with a generalization and then applies it to a specific case. The generalization you start with must have been based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence. Example: Genetically modified seeds have caused poverty, hunger, and a decline in bio-diversity everywhere they have been introduced, so there is no reason the same thing will not occur when genetically modified corn seeds are introduced in Mexico. In this example the author starts with a large claim, that genetically modified seeds have been problematic everywhere, and from this draws the more localized or specific conclusion that Mexico will be affected in the same way.” (source) method “a manner or mode of procedure, esp. an orderly, logical, or systematic way of instruction, inquiry, investigation, experiment, presentation, etc.: the empirical method of inquiry.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/method) modern academic study [of the Bible.] modern “1. of or pertaining to present and recent time; not ancient or remote: modern city life.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/modern) academic “1. of or pertaining to a college, academy, school, or other educational institution, esp. one for higher education: academic requirements. 6. acquired by formal education, esp. at a college or university: academic preparation for the ministry.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/academic) study “2. the cultivation of a particular branch of learning, science, or art: the study of law.” 5. research or a detailed examination and analysis of a subject, phenomenon, etc.: She made a study of the transistor market for her firm. (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/study) monitor “to oversee, supervise, or regulate: to monitor the administering of a test.” “3. To keep track of systematically with a view to collecting information: monitor the bear population of a national park; monitored the political views of the people. 4. To test or sample, especially on a regular or ongoing basis: monitored the city's drinking water for impurities. 5. To keep close watch over; supervise: monitor an examination.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/monitored) mood “The atmosphere that pervades a literary work with the intention of evoking a certain emotion or feeling from the audience. In drama, mood may be created by sets and music as well as words; in poetry and prose, mood may be created by a combination of such elements as setting, voice, tone and theme. The moods evoked by the more popular short stories of Edgar Allen Poe, for example, tend to be gloomy, horrific, and desperate.” (http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.html) motives (Also see “motif”) “1. something that causes a person to act in a certain way, do a certain thing, etc.; incentive. 2. the goal or object of a person's actions: Her motive was revenge. 3. (in art, literature, and music) a motif.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/motive) multicultural “of, pertaining to, or representing several different cultures or cultural elements: a multicultural society.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/multicultural); “Of or relating to a social or educational theory that encourages interest in many cultures within a society rather than in only a mainstream culture.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/multicultural) narrative “a story or account of events, experiences, or the like, whether true or fictitious.” ( http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/narrative) New Testament “the collection of the books of the Bible that were produced by the early Christian church, comprising the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles, and the Revelation of St. John the Divine.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/New%20Testament) note cards (Also see “source cards”) “a card for notetaking” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/notecard); “Guidelines for Using Note Cards and Source Cards Source Card: Contains information about the source of information, such as author, title, publisher, copyright date, web address, etc. Note Cards: Contains information about the topic; facts about the topic. Source cards and note cards help you take notes in and organized manner. They also help you follow Fair Use of Copyrighted materials. * Write the source card’s number in the upper right corner, circled. * For each note card, write the source card’s number in the upper right corner, circled. * Write notes on one sub-topic, idea or direct quote per note card. * Paraphrase or use bullets. Do not copy! * Use quotation marks for direct quotes. These you must copy accurately and include: who, when, and where. * Write the page number of where you found the information on the bottom of the note card. Do not forget to do this! * Write on one side only. This helps later as you sort cards into your outline. * In addition to taking textual notes, write summaries or descriptions of charts, illustrations, maps of interest. You might want to go back to them later, and they will be easier to find. (Example: A good illustration of Washington crossing the Delaware River in black white.) * When taking notes from different sources, you might have only 1 or 100+ note cards. It depends on the usefulness of the resource to your topic or question. There is no rule to the number of notes from any one resource. * If you use the notes or illustration, the source must be cited. No exceptions. You must follow Fair Use of Copyrighted materials.” (http://lbhughes.schoolloop.com/notessourcecards); “Note Card – Structure Topic- Subtopic Source Letter Page # Notes: • Use bullets • Use phrases, not complete sentences • Put the information in your own words • Not too much, not too little information per card • Write neatly and clearly • Use quotes around direct quotations Card Number for this Resource Note Card – Example Pennsylvania – William Penn C pg. 53 Born – October 14, 1644 Died – July 30, 1718 Married – 1st wife Gulielma Maria Springett 4 Children Married – 2nd wife Hannah Margaret Callowhill 12 Children” (source) objective “not influenced by personal feelings, interpretations, or prejudice; based on facts; unbiased: an objective opinion.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/objective) organization “4. organic structure; composition: The organization of this painting is quite remarkable.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/organization+) See text structure; Merge with text structure? organizational patterns - use a variety of strategies to analyze words and text, draw conclusions, use context and word structure clues, and recognize organizational patterns. orthography “1. the art of writing words with the proper letters, according to accepted usage; correct spelling. 2. the part of language study concerned with letters and spelling. 3. a method of spelling, as by the use of an alphabet or other system of symbols; spelling. 4. a system of such symbols: Missionaries provided the first orthography for the language.” (source) outline “A logically parallel list with further subdivision and subsections under individual items in the list.” (Leonard J. Rosen and Laurence Behrens, The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 4th ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000, 803); “A statement summarizing the important points of a text.” “A summary of a written work or speech, usually analyzed in headings and subheadings.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/outline) outlining “To give the main features or various aspects of; summarize: outlined the major provisions of the tax bill.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/outlining) papyrus “1. a tall, aquatic plant, Cyperus papyrus, of the sedge family, native to the Nile valley: the Egyptian subspecies, C. papyrus hadidii, thought to be common in ancient times, now occurs only in several sites. 2. a material on which to write, prepared from thin strips of the pith of this plant laid together, soaked, pressed, and dried, used by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. 3. an ancient document, manuscript, or scroll written on this material.” (source) papyrologist “A student of papyrology - the study of ancient writings on papyrus.” (source) reading techniques 1. partner reading “Background Partner Reading is a cooperative learning strategy in which two students work together to read an assigned text. This strategy is often used as part of the Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS). PALS is a classwide peer tutoring program in which teachers carefully partner a student with a classmate. The Partner Reading strategy allows students to take turns reading and provide each other with feedback as a way to monitor comprehension. Benefits Partner Reading does not require special reading materials and consequently enables teachers to use the reading material of their choice. This offers teachers flexibility for incorporating the strategy into various content areas. Partner Reading provides direct opportunities for a teacher to circulate in the class, observe students, and offer individual remediation. Create and use the strategy Choose the assigned reading and introduce the text to the students. Then create pairs within the classroom by identifying which children require help on specific skills and who the most appropriate children are to help other children learn those skills. Model the procedure to ensure that students understand how to use the strategy. 1. Each member of the teacher-assigned pair takes turns being "Coach" and "Player." These pairs are changed regularly, and over a period of time as students work. Thus, all students have the opportunity to be "coaches" and "players." Note: It is important for teachers to monitor and support students as they work together. 2. The stronger reader begins this activity as the "Player" and reads orally for 5 minutes. The "Coach" follows along and corrects any mistakes when necessary. 3. The pair switch roles and the weaker reader becomes the "Player." The "Player" rereads the same passage for the next 5 minutes and the "Coach" provides corrective feedback. One point is earned for each correct sentence read (optional). 4. After each partner has read the selection, teachers may wish to include the following additional activities: * Story retelling - students work together to retell the story by cooperatively providing input and correcting mistakes * Summarization - students support each other in developing a summary of the passage in 10 words or less * Writing - students write down the summary they developed and/or responses to the following: o the who or what of the paragraph; o the most important thing about who or what; and o the main idea” (http://www.adlit.org/strategies/23274); “When partners read to one another, they get immediate feedback on the pronunciation of words and the meaning of text. Two brains work together to figure out confusing reading puzzles on the spot. I introduce many ways to read as partners in the beginning of the year. I ask everyone to try each procedure. Then, students are left on their own to decide which partner-reading method works best for them and their partners including reading silently side-by-side. Here is a list of my favorite ways to read text compiled from many sources and conferences. The list is not presented in any order. Notice that each reading suggestion pairs 2 students together and they are both actively engaged in reading most of the time. The first gift teachers could give struggling readers is to stop making them read unrehearsed text aloud in front of one another. Linda Hoyt explains, "Tangled readers cannot help other tangled readers." 2. Whisper Reading - Each student in the group whispers the passages independently as the teacher moves to listen to and monitor each child. 3. Choral Reading - Read together, side by side, the book placed between the partners. 4. Echo Reading - One partner reads a line. The other partner repeats the line. 5. Expressive Reading - One partner reads a chunk. The other reads the chunk with expression. 6. Part Reading - One partner reads the characters' parts in voices. The other partner reads the narrator's parts. 7. Taking Turns - One partner reads a sentence, paragraph or page. The other reads the next sentence, paragraph or page. 8. Rehearsal Reading - The teacher assigns an individual page or part to each child. Each child in the group (of 4-6) takes time to practice that reading independently - suggested 3 times - while teacher works with other children. The student must try using known strategies first and then ask the teacher. The idea is to come back to group and read the part fluently - even names. When each person reads his/her part, the whole story or article is read aloud expressively and each reader feels successful. 9. Silent Reading - Partners read silently, sitting near one another so that they can ask each other for help when they need it. 10. Stop and Think Reading or Say Something Reading - Partners divide the reading into sections. They both read the section silently or aloud and then take turns saying something. Students say what they are thinking to their partner: a personal connection, a question, something noticed, a connection to another book or movie... Say or ask something! Students can read this way in groups with a teacher, as well.” (http://www.liketoread.com/struct_talk_partner_reading.php) reader’s theater “Reader's Theater, a "highly successful classroom instructional model for fluency based on sound theory and research" (Scraper, 2006, p. 2), provides students with modeling, practice, support, and a focus on expression and phrasing. Reader's Theater is an oral and sometimes, visual activity in which students read scripts or stories, each taking the part of one of the characters or narrator, to bring the text to life (Martinez, Roser & Strecker, 1999; Prescott-Griffin & Witherell, 2004). There is no need for an actual production of a play or theatrical event although props may be used. The goal of this strategy is to help students with their fluency and comprehension by allowing them rehearsal time to practice reading with expression and prosody, the opportunity to read and reread for meaning, and the ability to focus on word meanings.” (source) perceive “to recognize, discern, envision, or understand: I perceive a note of sarcasm in your voice. This is a nice idea but I perceive difficulties in putting it into practice. To achieve understanding of; apprehend.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/+perceive) perceptions (Also see “perceive”) “The process, act, or faculty of perceiving.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/perception) performance standards “A performance standard is a management-approved expression of the performance threshold(s), requirement(s), or expectation(s) that must be met to be appraised at a particular level of performance.” (http://www.opm.gov/perform/articles/118.asp); “Performance standards provide clear statements of the kinds of performances that constitute evidence that students had met the content standards. They answer the question, how well must a student perform? For example, we can set up assessments that correspond to our curriculum standards (say, mathematical problem solving), and then specify the level and kind of responses students need to give in order to be considered skilled (performance standards).” (http://www.sbctc.ctc.edu/college/_e-assessglossary.aspx); “Performance Standards tell what students should know and be able to do” (source); “How Can Standards Help Students Learn? • Written learning expectations give parents, students, and teachers a clear understanding of what each student should know and be able to do, and by when. Since learning goals by grade are the same for all Massachusetts public school students, standards help assure equity. • By clarifying the goals of education, standards give parents, students, and teachers a tool for comparing student work to the standard specified. • Standards-based education makes it clearer to parents, students, and teachers when children have and have not achieved the quality or work that is expected for mastery. This makes it easier to work together to help students improve.” (http://pplace.org/ed_in_ma/standards.php) personification “A figure of speech in which inanimate objects or abstractions are endowed with human qualities or are represented as possessing human form, as in Hunger sat shivering on the road or Flowers danced about the lawn. Also called prosopopeia.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/personification); “When something other than a human being (often an abstract quality) is treated as a human being — as when we speak of blind Justice — it is said to be personified. See also allegory and apostrophe.” (http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/personification.html) phonemic (Also see “phoneme”) “of, relating to, or having the characteristics of a phoneme (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phonemic) phonemic awareness “The ability to hear, identify and manipulate the individual sounds – phonemes – in spoken words. Phonemic awareness is the understanding that the sounds of spoken language work together to make words.” (www.justreadflorida.com/docs/reading_grant.pdf) phonics “1 the science of sound: acoustics 2 a method of teaching beginners to read and pronounce words by learning the phonetic value of letters, letter groups, and especially syllables (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phonics); “The understanding that there is a predictable relationship between phonemes – the sounds of spoken language – and graphemes – the letters and spellings that represent those sounds in written language. Readers use these relationships to recognize familiar words accurately and automatically and to decode unfamiliar words.” (www.justreadflorida.com/docs/reading_grant.pdf) postsecondary education “ * Education after the high-school (secondary) level * Options include community colleges, four-year colleges, and vocational-technical colleges” (source); “Postsecondary education takes place in 2-year and 4-year public and private nonprofit colleges and universities, in proprietary profit-making trade schools whose programs may last from a few months to several years, and in public vocational-technical schools that offer post-high school programs of 2 years or less. Postsecondary education can be academic or vocational.” (source) prefix or prefixes “Grammar. an affix placed before a base or another prefix, as un- in unkind, un- and re- in unrewarding.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/prefix) Morphemic Analysis: Twenty Most Common English Affixes Suffixes -s, -es -ed -ing -ly -er, -or (one who) -ion, -tion, -ation, -ition -ible, -able -al, -ial -y -ness -ity, -ty -ment -ic -ous, -eous, -ious -en -er (comparative) -iv, -ative, -itive -ful -less -est Prefixes un- re- in-, im-, ir-, il- (not) dis- en-, em- non- in-, im- (in or into) over- (too much) mis- sub- pre- inter- fore- de-, trans- super- semi- anti- mid- under- (too little) primary source information “These are contemporary accounts of an event, written by someone who experienced or witnessed the event in question. These original documents (i.e., they are not about another document or account) are often diaries, letters, memoirs, journals, speeches, manuscripts, interviews and other such unpublished works. They may also include published pieces such as newspaper or magazine articles (as long as they are written soon after the fact and not as historical accounts), photographs, audio or video recordings, research reports in the natural or social sciences, or original literary or theatrical works.” (source); “The original source of resource information (e.g., newspaper, letter, encyclopedia, book).” (source) progress monitoring “Progress monitoring is a scientifically based practice that is used to assess students academic performance and evaluate the effectiveness of instruction. Progress monitoring can be implemented with individual students or an entire class. How does progress monitoring work? To implement progress monitoring, the student’s current levels of performance are determined and goals are identified for learning that will take place over time. The student’s academic performance is measured on a regular basis (weekly or monthly). Progress toward meeting the student’s goals is measured by comparing expected and actual rates of learning. Based on these measurements, teaching is adjusted as needed. Thus, the student’s progression of achievement is monitored and instructional techniques are adjusted to meet the individual students learning needs What are the benefits of progress monitoring? When progress monitoring is implemented correctly, the benefits are great for everyone involved. Some benefits include: * accelerated learning because students are receiving more appropriate instruction; * more informed instructional decisions; * documentation of student progress for accountability purposes; * more efficient communication with families and other professionals about students? progress; * higher expectations for students by teachers; and * fewer Special Education referrals. Overall, the use of progress monitoring results in more efficient and appropriately targeted instructional techniques and goals, which can move all students to faster attainment of important state standards of achievement.” (http://www.clarion.edu/21558/); “Are there other names for progress monitoring? Progress monitoring is a relatively new term. Some other terms you may be more familiar with are Curriculum-Based Measurement and Curriculum-Based Assessment.” (http://www.studentprogress.org/progresmon.asp#6) prophetic literature (The following is the definition for “prophetic”) [Also see “literature”] “Containing prophecy; foretelling future events; as prophetic writings.” (http://1828.mshaffer.com/d/search/word,prophetic) rates (suited to varied purposes and types of reading materials.) [I’m not entirely sure of the meaning of “rates” in the context, but to the best of my ability, I think it’s the following definition.] “degree of speed, progress, etc.: to work at a rapid rate.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/rates) reading certification or reading endorsement (You may want to omit this?) reading comprehension “What is reading comprehension? Reading comprehension is the process of constructing meaning from text. The goal of all reading instruction is ultimately targeted at helping a reader comprehend text. Reading comprehension involves at least two people: the reader and the writer. The process of comprehending involves decoding the writer's words and then using background knowledge to construct an approximate understanding of the writer's message.” (http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/main.php?cat=instruction&section=rc/main) reading coach “The Just Read, Florida! office defines a reading coach as follows: A reading coach is a professional development liaison within the school to support, model, and continuously improve SBRR (Scientifically Based Reading Research) instructional programs in reading to assure reading improvement for ALL students. A Reading Coach also… Helps others to recognize their instructional knowledge and strengths, and supports them in their learning and application of new knowledge and instructional practices.” (http://rfpd.ucf.edu/library/Dolphin/E-2/Mon2_RdgCoachNowWht.pdf) reading log “What are Reading Logs? * A place where students will record the minutes read each night and write a brief summary of the events (the main ideas).” (source); "One of the most widely used means of assessment of independent reading is a reading log. A reading log is a list of books that a student has read. The list can record the books, the number of pages, the genre, the reading level, or a combination of these components. It is not an assessment, however, unless the teacher uses the information as part of a grade and/or to draw conclusions about the reader." (source); “A reading log is basically a record of anything you want to make while reading a text. You should not just read a text in one go, but set yourself a number of chapters which you read and then, after this reading session, write in your reading log your reaction to what you have read. It is usually easiest to divide your reading log into chapters of the book, as this is how the author intended the novel to be read. But sometimes, especially if a novel is written in alternating voices, it might make more sense to make notes in your log after every couple of chapters. With plays, of course, a scene or an entire act could comprise your reading session. The following ideas are only suggestions. It would be a good idea after your first reading session to look through the list and decide which things you would like to include. When you are halfway through the text, have another look and see if there are other suggestions you might want to take up. Again after finishing the text, have another look through the suggestions. II. What should you keep in a reading log? The text itself 1. Keep short summaries of chapters or scenes. This will help you to remember what happens in the text. 2. Include character descriptions. Note how characters change or remain the same. 3. Write down things mentioned in the reading session which you should keep an eye out for as the plot develops. 4. Write down important quotes dealing with the characters or plot. 5. Write how you think the story might continue. 6. Is there an idea in the text that makes you stop and think, or prompts questions? Identify the idea and explain your responses. 7. Does the text leave you with questions you would like to ask? What are they? Would you like to direct your questions at a particular character? What questions would you like to ask the author? 8. Are you confused about what happened (or didn’t happen) in the text? What events or characters do you not understand? 9. How have you changed after reading the text? What did you learn that you didn’t know before? Other sources of reference 1. Record the names of films, books, music that remind you of a particular scene or character and say why. 2. Find photos, paintings or adverts that relate to what you have read. Explain your choice. 3. Add materials about things that are referred to in the novel (e.g. background information on the history or geography of the novel, information about real people or events or literature mentioned in the novel). Your imagination 1. Change the form: write part of the text as a diary from the perspective of one of the characters or as a film script, etc. 2. Imagine what sort of things the characters might like or not like that are not mentioned in the novel, e.g. music, films, holidays, food. 3. If you don’t like a dialogue or scene, rewrite it. 4. Design a new cover for the book. 5. Draw pictures of the characters or scenes. 6. If you were the author, would you have changed the name of a character, or altered the location of a scene? Personal response 1. Write about what your feelings are after reading the opening scene(s)/chapter(s) of the text. How do your feelings change (or do they) while reading the text? Where and why do they change? Do you feel any differently after finishing the text? 2. What emotions did the text invoke: laughter, tears, smiles, anger? Record some of your reactions. 3. Sometimes literature reminds you of your own life as part of the larger human experience. Are there connections between the text and your own life? 4. Would you like to be one of the characters or have one of their personality traits? Which of the characters would you become, if you could? Why? © Cornelsen Verlag 2002, Alle Rechte vorbehalten. 5. 6. Would you recommend the text to someone else? Who else do you think should read the text? Should anyone not be encouraged to read the text? Why? Would you like to read more texts by the author? Why or why not? Have you already read other texts by the author? How do they compare to this text? Language 1. Collect vocabulary in word fields that are important in the text. 2. Include new vocabulary that you might need to talk about the story or the characters. 3. Does the use of language in the text confuse you? Keep notes of things you found difficult. 4. What are your favorite lines in the text? Copy them into your reading log and explain why these passages caught your attention.” (http://www.docstoc.com/docs/1951593/HOW-TO-KEEP-A-READING-LOG) reading (competencies) (Also see “competency”) [Sorry, this definition is lacking.] “Target skills, on the other hand, are those abilities that an assessor intends to assess. For example, reading competencies are the target skills in a reading assessment...” (http://www.wceruw.org/archive/riser/Brief%203%20text%20only.pdf) real-world tasks “A real-world task is very close to something we do in daily life or work.” (http://waiyu.bjfu.edu.cn/gl/doc/11Chapter%2011_teaching.ppt); “Real-world tasks: These are tasks which use "authentic" materials and situations. Learners are required to approximate, in class, the sorts of behaviors required of them in the world beyond the classroom.” (http://www.finchpark.com/courses/glossary.htm#real) relating (what is read to his or her own experiences and feelings.) (The following is the definition for “relate”) “to bring into or establish association, connection, or relation: to relate events to probable causes.” “To establish or demonstrate a connection between.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/relate) religious concepts religious “1. of, pertaining to, or concerned with religion: a religious holiday.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/religious) concept “a general notion or idea; conception. Something formed in the mind; a thought or notion. See Synonyms at idea.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/concept) remediating “the act or process of remedying <remediation of reading problems>” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/remediating) repetition “1. The act of doing or uttering a second time; iteration of the same act, or of the same words or sounds. 2. The act of reciting or rehearsing; the act of reading over.” (http://1828.mshaffer.com/d/search/word,repetition) research projects “...we define a research project as a project done as part of a course taken by an undergraduate or graduate student for academic credit or pay and the project typically lasts for one academic semester. In some cases, the project may be extended to multiple semesters, and/or form the Masters or Bachelors thesis for the student. A typical research project starts with the problem definition, study of existing solutions, enhancements to accomplish something new, and presenting the results in the form of a project report.” (http://www.myprojectguide.org/node/9) research-based (programs and strategies which are) “consistent with current and confirmed research.” (http://www.fldoe.org/bii/instruct_mat/0708adoption/Specifications.pdf) resolution “the point in a literary work at which the chief dramatic complication is worked out” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/resolution); “The part of a literary work in which the complications of the plot are resolved or simplified.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/resolution) retell “to tell again or in another form” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/retell); “(Written retelling): Retell a story in writing, demonstrating understanding of material whilst bringing own voice, new vocabulary choices and greater creative interpretation to it.” (http://www.english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/units/retell/home.html) rhyme “A similarity of sound between words, such as moon, spoon, croon, tune, and June. Rhyme is often employed in verse.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/rhyme) rhythm (Needs editing) “The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of verse or (less often) prose. Regular rhythm is called meter. In some languages, such as classical Greek and Latin, rhythm is based on the length or even pitch of the syllables. In English, although there have been experiments with "quantititive verse" (where the amount of time it takes to speak each syllable determines "long" or "short"), especially in the Renaissance, the more common basis of rhythm is stress. Stressed syllables in a line can marked with an acute accent ('), which real scansion nerds call an ictus, to show the rhythm, as here: Róund abóut the cáuldron gó, Ín the póisoned éntrails thrów. Even though, properly speaking, English meter doesn't base its meter on "long" and "short" syllables (even though stressed syllables tend to be longer), the terms "short" and "long" are sometimes used. They're mostly holdovers from classical (Greek and Roman) metrical schemes.” (http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/rhythm.html) roles “proper or customary function: the teacher's role in society. A function or position. See Synonyms at function.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/roles) root (prefix, roots, suffix, etc.) “the simple element inferred as the basis from which a word is derived by phonetic change or by extension (as composition or the addition of an affix or inflectional ending)” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/root); “The element that carries the main component of meaning in a word and provides the basis from which a word is derived by adding affixes or inflectional endings or by phonetic change.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/root) sacred scripture “Babylon English-English sacred writings of the Old and/or New Testament, the Bible; sacred book or writing; passage from the Bible Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913) The books of the Old and the new Testament, or of either of them; the Bible; -- used by way of eminence or distinction, and chiefly in the plural. Easton's Bible Dictionary invariably in the New Testament denotes that definite collection of sacred books, regarded as given by inspiration of God, which we usually call the Old Testament (2 Tim. 3:15, 16; John 20:9; Gal. 3:22; 2 Pet. 1:20). It was God's purpose thus to perpetuate his revealed will. From time to time he raised up men to commit to writing in an infallible record the revelation he gave. The "Scripture," or collection of sacred writings, was thus enlarged from time to time as God saw necessary. We have now a completed "Scripture," consisting of the Old and New Testaments. The Old Testament canon in the time of our Lord was precisely the same as that which we now possess under that name. He placed the seal of his own authority on this collection of writings, as all equally given by inspiration (Matt. 5:17; 7:12; 22:40; Luke 16:29, 31).” (http://dictionary.babylon.com/scripture) screening “To test or evaluate (a student) to determine placement in an educational system or to identify specific learning needs.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/screening) secondary source material (Also see “primary source information”) “The function of these is to interpret primary sources, and so can be described as at least one step removed from the event or phenomenon under review. Secondary source materials, then, interpret, assign values to, conjecture upon, and draw conclusions about the events reported in primary sources. These are usually in the form of published works such as journal articles or books, but may include radio or television documentaries, or conference proceedings.” (http://library.ucsc.edu/ref/howto/primarysecondary.html); “A secondary source is something written about a primary source. Secondary sources include comments on, interpretations of, or discussions about the original material. You can think of secondary sources as second-hand information. If I tell you something, I am the primary source. If you tell someone else what I told you, you are the secondary source. Secondary source materials can be articles in newspapers or popular magazines, book or movie reviews, or articles found in scholarly journals that evaluate or criticize someone else's original research.” (http://www.ithaca.edu/library/course/primary.html); “Sources of information that are derived from primary or original sources.” (source) Section 233.062, Florida Statutes “A bill to be entitled An act relating to public schools; amending s. 233.062, F.S.; directing the superintendent of schools to provide for the display of the motto "IN GOD WE TRUST" in a prominent location in public schools; providing an effective date. Be It Enacted by the Legislature of the State of Florida: Section 1. Section 233.062, Florida Statutes, is amended to read: 233.062 Permitting study of the Bible and religion; permitting brief meditation period; display of motto.-- (1) The school board may install in the public schools in the district a secular program of education including, but not limited to, an objective study of the Bible and of religion. (2) The school board may provide that a brief period, not to exceed 2 minutes, for the purpose of silent prayer or meditation be set aside at the start of each school day or each school week in the public schools in the district. (3) The superintendent of schools in each school district shall provide for the display in a prominent location within each school under his or her supervision of the motto of the United States of America, "IN GOD WE TRUST," on an appropriately framed background with minimum dimensions of 11 inches by 14 inches. Section 2. This act shall take effect upon becoming a law.” (http://www.flsenate.gov/data/session/2002/House/bills/billtext/pdf/h0915c1.pdf) secular program (of education) secular “1. of or pertaining to worldly things or to things that are not regarded as religious, spiritual, or sacred; temporal: secular interests. 2. not pertaining to or connected with religion (opposed to sacred ): secular music. 3. (of education, a school, etc.) concerned with nonreligious subjects.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/secular) program “a plan or schedule of activities, procedures, etc., to be followed.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/program) simile “a figure of speech comparing two unlike things that is often introduced by like or as (as in cheeks like roses)” (source); “A figure of speech comparing two unlike things usually using like or as (e.g., “like ancient trees, we die from the top”).” (source) social functions (of apocalyptic literature) social “Of or relating to human society and its modes of organization: social classes; social problems; a social issue. of or pertaining to the life, welfare, and relations of human beings in a community: social problems. Of, relating to, or occupied with matters affecting human welfare: social programs.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/social) functions “the kind of action or activity proper to a person, thing, or institution; the purpose for which something is designed or exists; role.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/function); “the action for which a person or thing is specially fitted or used or for which a thing exists : purpose” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/function) societal “noting or pertaining to large social groups, or to their activities, customs, etc.” “Of or relating to the structure, organization, or functioning of society.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/societal) source cards “There are two kinds of research cards: source cards and information cards. Source cards identify where you found the information contained in your paper or speech. For example, a source card for a book will show the author, title, date and place of publication, and publisher. Source cards are also written for magazine articles, interviews, dissertations, tapes, or any other research materials. When you write source cards, give each source a code—the initials of the author, a number, or a combination of numbers and letters. A key advantage of using source cards is that you are creating your bibliography as you do the research. When you are done, simply alphabetize the cards by author and—voilà!—instant bibliography.” (http://thunder1.cudenver.edu/clas/advising/toolkitdocs/readingnotes_de.pdf); “Make a source card for each source you will be using. Sources can be books, articles clipped and stored in the vertical file, pamphlets, and of course, a computer search of library databases or data from the Internet. Remember: Each one of the above is a separate source and a separate card must be made for each. Source cards are 3x5 index cards. The top red line is not used. Start on the first blue line and continue until the end of the line. To continue, skip a line and indent for the second line and again go to the end with the information. If you need a third line, skip a line and indent and so on until all the information is written down. Source cards are exact. They must have the proper capitalization and punctuation.” (http://www.schenectady.k12.ny.us/users/taylorn/Source%20Cards.pdf); “A source card is a card that lists the reference source you used for information. Each entry on your Works Cited page needs one Source Card to match. * Each source card will be labeled in the upper right hand corner with a capital letter. Your first source will be A; your second source will be B, and so forth. They do not need to match the order on your Works Cited page. You will make a new source card each time you find a new source. The Works Cited page will be the final listing of all the sources you cited in your paper. * You will not take notes on the source card. The notes will go on the note cards with the accompanying labels: A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, etc.” (http://fd.valenciacc.edu/file/twoodard/carreerFall05.doc); “Once you have selected a source that you think will be valuable to your research, you need to make a source card for it. This source card will contain the information you need for your Bibliography or Works Cited Page. A few things to remember when making a source card: 1. Use an index card for your source card. Make a new source card for each source. You will have as many source cards as you have sources. 2. Each source card will have a different source number. 3. Include all the information you will need in your Work Cited Page, when writing the source citation. It will save you time later on. Examples of how to write a proper source citation can be found in the Appendix of this Resource Guide. 4. Write down where you found the book – e.g. the South County Library, the Pohick Library, your house, etc. This will save you time if you have to go and use the book again. 5. If you are using a book from a library, write down the call number. This too will save you time if you have to use the book again.” (http://www.fcps.edu/southcountyss/erg/research/Tab%201%20Source_Cards.pdf); (MLA style source cards) “These are records of the sources you used to take notes with. You need them to create an MLA Works Cited Page. Be sure to follow MLA Style. Be sure to include author, title, publishing information, and a link if available on line!” (http://colusahigh.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=386&Itemid=1); “Guidelines for Using Note Cards and Source Cards Source Card: Contains information about the source of information, such as author, title, publisher, copyright date, web address, etc. Note Cards: Contains information about the topic; facts about the topic. Source cards and note cards help you take notes in and organized manner. They also help you follow Fair Use of Copyrighted materials. * Write the source card’s number in the upper right corner, circled. * For each note card, write the source card’s number in the upper right corner, circled. * Write notes on one sub-topic, idea or direct quote per note card. * Paraphrase or use bullets. Do not copy! * Use quotation marks for direct quotes. These you must copy accurately and include: who, when, and where. * Write the page number of where you found the information on the bottom of the note card. Do not forget to do this! * Write on one side only. This helps later as you sort cards into your outline. * In addition to taking textual notes, write summaries or descriptions of charts, illustrations, maps of interest. You might want to go back to them later, and they will be easier to find. (Example: A good illustration of Washington crossing the Delaware River in black white.) * When taking notes from different sources, you might have only 1 or 100+ note cards. It depends on the usefulness of the resource to your topic or question. There is no rule to the number of notes from any one resource. * If you use the notes or illustration, the source must be cited. No exceptions. You must follow Fair Use of Copyrighted materials.” (http://lbhughes.schoolloop.com/notessourcecards) speaking competencies (Also see “competency”. The Sunshine State Standards speaking competencies may be different than the following.) “Speaking and Listening Competencies for College Students Table 1: Expected Student Outcomes for Speaking and Listening: Basic Communication Course and General Education I. SPEAKING COMPETENCIES (Quianthy, 1990) Speaking is the process of transmitting ideas and information orally in a variety of situations. Effective oral communication involves generating messages and delivering them with attention to vocal variety, articulation, and nonverbal signals. In order to be a COMPETENT SPEAKER, a person must be able to compose a message and provide ideas and information suitable to the topic, purpose, and audience. Specifically, the competent speaker should exhibit the following competencies by demonstrating the abilities included under each statement. A. DETERMINE THE PURPOSE OF ORAL DISCOURSE. 1. Identify the various purposes for discourse. 2. Identify the similarities and differences among various purposes. 3. Understand that different contexts require differing purposes. 4. Generate a specific purpose relevant to the context when given a general purpose. B. CHOOSE A TOPIC AND RESTRICT IT ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE AND THE AUDIENCE. 1. Identify a subject that is relevant to the speaker's role, knowledge, concerns, and interests. 2. Narrow the topic adapting it to the purpose and time constraints for communicating. 3. Adapt the treatment of the topic to the context for communication. C. FULFILL THE PURPOSE OF ORAL DISCOURSE BY: Formulating a thesis statement. 1. Use a thesis as a planning tool. 2. Summarize the central message in a manner consistent with the purpose. Providing adequate support material. 1. Demonstrate awareness of available types of support. 2. Locate appropriate support materials. 3. Select appropriate support based on the topic, audience, setting, and purpose. Selecting a suitable organizational pattern. 1. Demonstrate awareness of alternative organizational patterns. 2. Demonstrate understanding of the functions of organizational patterns including: a. clarification of information b. facilitation of listener comprehension c. attitude change d. relational interaction. 1. Select organizational patterns that are appropriate to the topic, audience, context, and purpose. Demonstrating careful choice of words. 1. Demonstrate understanding of the power of language. 2. Select words that are appropriate to the topic, audience, purpose, context, and speaker. 3. Use word choice in order to express ideas clearly, to create and maintain interest, and to enhance the speaker's credibility. 4. Select words that avoid sexism, racism, and other forms of prejudice. Providing effective transitions. 1. Demonstrate understanding of the types and functions of transitions. 2. Use transitions to: a. establish connectedness b. signal movement from one idea to another c. clarify relationships among ideas The COMPETENT SPEAKER must also be able to transmit the message by using delivery skills suitable to the topic, purpose, and audience. Specifically, the competent speaker should exhibit the following competencies by demonstrating the abilities included under each statement. A. EMPLOY VOCAL VARIETY IN RATE, PITCH, AND INTENSITY. 1. Use vocal variety to heighten and maintain interest. 2. Use a rate that is suitable to the message, occasion, and receiver. 3. Use pitch (within the speaker's optimum range) to clarify and to emphasize. 4. Use intensity appropriate for the message and audible to the audience. B. ARTICULATE CLEARLY. 1. Demonstrate knowledge of the sounds of the American English language. 2. Use the sounds of the American English language. C. EMPLOY LANGUAGE APPROPRIATE TO THE DESIGNATED AUDIENCE. 1. Employ language that enhances the speaker's credibility, promotes the purpose, and the receiver's understanding. 2. Demonstrate that the use of technical vocabularies, slang, idiomatic language, and regionalisms may facilitate understanding when communicating with others who share meanings for those terms, but can hinder understanding in those situations where meanings are not shared. 3. Use standard pronunciation. 4. Use standard grammar. 5. Use language at the appropriate level of abstraction or generality. D. DEMONSTRATE NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR THAT SUPPORTS THE VERBAL MESSAGE. 1. Use appropriate paralanguage (extraverbal elements of voice such as emphasis, pause, tone, etc.) that 2. achieves congruence and enhances the verbal intent. 3. Use appropriate kinesic elements (posture, gesture, and facial expression) that achieve congruence and enhance the verbal intent. 4. Use appropriate proxemic elements (interpersonal distance and spatial arrangement) that 5. achieve congruence and enhance the verbal intent. 6. Use appropriate clothing and ornamentation that achieve congruence and enhance the verbal intent. The COMPETENT SPEAKER must also be able to transmit messages using interpersonal skills suitable to the context and the audience. Specifically, the competent speaker should exhibit interpersonal competence by demonstrating the following abilities. 1. Demonstrate appropriate interpersonal skills for various contexts. 2. Display self-awareness as a communicator. 3. Select from a repertoire of interpersonal skills those strategies that enhance relationships. 4. Use a conversational mode through self-presentation and response to feedback.” (http://www.natcom.org/NCA/files/ccLibraryFiles/FILENAME/000000000085/College%20Competencies.pdf) statistical illustrations “Statistical illustrations are graphical or diagrammatic representations of the same facts included in tables; the meaning of the facts is thrown into relief and enhanced; sequences, proportional relations between facts, distribution, etc., can be read at a glance. Graphs are also significant as an aid in computation. The various forms of graphic representation are sometimes all called graphs, sometimes all diagrams.” (source) structural analysis “the process of using familiar word parts (base words, prefixes, and suffixes) to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words.” (http://www.eduplace.com/rdg/res/phonic.html) study skills (One paragraph needs editing) “The term 'Study Skills' is often used interchangeably with many other terms which all describe the same thing - a person's ability to study effectively, and their ability to acquire knowledge.” (http://www.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/studyskills/general/); ”Study skills encompass a wide range of behaviors that students can perform before, during, and after learning to help them retain and apply information presented in the classroom or at home. It is important for teachers and parents to promote and monitor the development of these skills, because study skills are most effective when students use them to come up with their own ways of organizing their studying. Preparing to learn: Personal discipline, self-management, organizational skills, positive attitude toward studying, and the ability to self-monitor are study skills that help students with preparing to learn. Processing and retaining what has been learned: Note-taking, outlining, listening, learning information from a text, and library reference skills are study skills that help students with how do learners acquire knowledge. Demonstrating and applying what has been learned: Remembering or retrieving information from memory, test-taking skills, and demonstrating understanding orally or through writing are study skills that help students with applying knowledge.” (http://www.emstac.org/registered/topics/studyskills/index.htm); “What are study skills? Study skills or learning skills are processes for lifelong learning. These practical skills include organizational tools, time management techniques, test preparation and test-taking strategies, note-taking guidance and/or personal responsibility tips. How do study skills support learning? Good study skills are important for success in school, to foster feelings of competence, to develop positive attitudes toward school/work, and to help students realize they can exercise control over how well they do in school and in life. Good study habits lay the groundwork for successful work habits as an adult. For students to develop effective study skills, teachers and parents must work collaboratively. Parents and teachers provide direct instruction, modeling and practice opportunities to help students acquire the skills needed. Since learning preferences vary from student to student, it is essential to help students learn what works best for them and to use those learned skills effectively and consistently.” (http://www.pleasval.k12.ia.us/studyskills/studyskillshome.htm) suffix “an affix occurring at the end of a word, base, or phrase” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/suffix); A group of letters joined to the end of a root word. Suffixes change the grammatical function of words and can be used to indicate tense.” Leonard J. Rosen and Laurence Behrens, The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 4th ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000, 808); “An affix attached to the end of a base, root, or stems that changes meaning or grammatical function of the word (e.g., –en added to ox to form oxen).” (source) summarizing “to tell in or reduce to a summary” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/summarizing); “To determine what is important in the text, condense this information, and put it into the students’ own words.” (source) summary “A brief, objective account of the main ideas of a source passage.” (Leonard J. Rosen and Laurence Behrens, The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 4th ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000, 808); “covering the main points succinctly” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/summary); “A synthesis of the important ideas in a text presented in a condensed form.” (source) Sunshine State Standards “Statements of expected learning for Florida students in the areas of Language Arts, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, Health and Physical Education, the Arts, Foreign Languages, and Special Diploma. These standards define the outcomes of the general curriculum in Florida.” (source) survey “A general or comprehensive view.” (source) symbolism “A symbol is something that stands for something else. Unlike ALLEGORY, symbolism is multi-dimensional--it may convey a number of meanings. The symbol of the great white whale in Herman Melville's Moby Dick, for example, may stand for the devil, nature, the forces of the universe or ?” (source); “Generally speaking, a symbol is a sign representing something other than itself. In literary criticism, a symbol is an image with an indefinite range of reference beyond itself. Some symbols are conventional ("the sun," "the eagle," "the Good Shepherd"), as they have a range of significance that is commonly understood in a particular culture. Other symbols are private or personal, having a special significance derived from their particular use by an author.” (source) Synoptic Problem “The synoptic problem concerns the literary relationship between the first three "synoptic" gospels of the New Testament: Matthew, Mark, and Luke.” (source); “ The synoptic problem is an investigation into the existence and nature of the literary interrelationship among the first three "synoptic" gospels. Matthew, Mark, and Luke are called the synoptic gospels, in contrast with John, because they can readily be arranged in a three-column harmony called a "synopsis." Unlike John, the synoptic gospels share a great number of parallel accounts and parables, arranged in mostly the same order, and told with many of the same words. Any proposed solution to the synoptic problem, therefore, must account for these literary similarities among the synoptics, not so much in terms of their factual content, but in the selection of that content, the arrangement of the material, and wording of the parallels. The synoptic problem is the cornerstone of historical critical scholarship of the gospels. As a result, one's solution to the synoptic problem will influence one's exegesis, redaction criticism, and form criticism of the gospels as well as affect the quest for the historical Jesus, early church history, and even the text of the gospels.” (source) synthesis “A presentation that draws together material from several sources.” (Leonard J. Rosen and Laurence Behrens, The Allyn & Bacon Handbook, 4th ed., Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000, 808) synthesize (Also see “synthesis”) “to combine or produce by synthesis” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/synthesize) systematic practice opportunities (See “guided instruction”) [I’m not sure if this needs more/different definition, but it’s difficult for me to research, and I’m not entirely sure of the meaning in the context.] systematic “1. Of, characterized by, based on, or constituting a system. 2. Carried on using step-by-step procedures. 3. Purposefully regular; methodical. See Synonyms at orderly.” (source) technical “Used in or peculiar to a specific field or profession; specialized: technical terminology.” (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/technical); “belonging or pertaining to an art, science, or the like: technical skill.” “using terminology or treating subject matter in a manner peculiar to a particular field, as a writer or a book: a technical report.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/technical); “Content or vocabulary directly related to specific knowledge or information in a career or interest area.” (source) technical text “A technical text is written always in impersonal form and must follow a precise structure, and it is composed at least by three parts: introduction, discussion or justification and conclusions. The introduction is used to place the reader into the document, that is, to explain what the subject is, “what it is about”. It can be structured as a report, collecting the antecedents that motivate it, it is just a historical relation of the facts that lead to the subject of the document. This kind of introduction makes also a lot of sense when it refers to an aspect that is part of a greater or more complex set. An introduction can be limited to a simple declaration of the document’s objectives, for example: “this document specifies program <name> which is necessary to <do that>”. The discussion or justification is the main and the most complex part of the document. Normally, if it is big enough it is structured in sections and subsections. It will include the statement of the set of problems, the different alternative solutions that have been studied (in case there are any), and it will give a justification to the reader of the conclusions in the next part. The critical study of the current system must be as well included in this section of the specification; normally it would be the justification of some of the conclusions. Finally, the conclusions, they refer to everything that has been discussed and justified in the document. The conclusions of the specification document must be a detailed description of the new system: functionalities and other requirements. The different aspects which could be optional, that is, which may not eventually be done because they are not essential, will also be distinguished here.” (http://www-assig.fib.upc.edu/~prop/metodologia_EN.pdf) technical qualities (technical qualities present in the literature of different cultures and historical periods.) “of, pertaining to, or showing technique.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/technical) technical meanings (See “technical”) thematic (Also see “theme”) “of or pertaining to a theme.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/thematic) theories (The following is a definition for the word “theory”) “a proposed explanation whose status is still conjectural, in contrast to well-established propositions that are regarded as reporting matters of actual fact.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/theories) translate “to turn from one language into another or from a foreign language into one's own: to translate Spanish.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/translated) Related: translation translation “the rendering of something into another language or into one's own from another language.” “A translation is a rendering of the same ideas in a different language from the original: a translation from Greek into English.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/translation) transmission “the act or process of transmitting.” “conveyance from one place to another" “Origin: 1605–15; < L tra-nsmissio-n- (s. of tra-nsmissio-) a sending across” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/transmission) transmitted “to send or forward, as to a recipient or destination; dispatch; convey.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/transmitted); “to send or convey from one person or place to another” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/transmitted) universal “used or understood by all: a universal language.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/universal) universal themes (Also see “theme” and “universal” “Recurring Motifs in World Literature Recurring motifs in literature can be found through many eras. The similarities in various works are often striking because there appears to be no link to their origin yet they share many fundamental concepts and the message is often the same. By tracing a few similarities through specific works that span time and geography one is able to draw certain conclusions as to why the ideas men have expressed through literature bear such a striking likeness. Two motifs will be examined, one of betrayal and the other of flood type events. The betrayal of a trust reappears often as a motif in world literature. A state of trust between friends or between man and wife is often transgressed. This often embodies itself as an act of infidelity between lovers or man and wife or the act of betrayal can even be between men and a god figure. The flood motif is nearly universal in its meaning and bears so many similarities through many varied cultures that one can imagine there being a true flood event that gave birth to the many stories of such an event.” (http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/56838.html); “Universal Themes Universal themes add to the timelessness of a piece because they relate to us all--either in our experiences or in our dreams. Some universal themes readers enjoy include: * love conquers all * good vs. evil * rags to riches Theme - The underlying meaning of a literary work. Universal Theme - A theme that we can all relate to--no matter when or where we live.” (source) varied interpretations varied “characterized by or exhibiting variety; various; diverse; diversified: varied backgrounds.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/varied) interpret “to give or provide the meaning of; explain; explicate; elucidate: to interpret the hidden meaning of a parable.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/interpret+) interpretation (Also see “interpret”) “The act or process of interpreting.” “An explanation or conceptualization by a critic of a work of literature, painting, music, or other art form; an exegesis.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/interpretation) viewing competencies [This needs more definition, but I wasn’t able to find it online.] competency “Competency: A competency is an ability or level of knowledge an instructor would want students to possess (i.e., students will know the plots of Shakespeare's tragedies.). A competency may exist in a nested structure as a part of other competencies.” (http://icon.uiowa.edu/support/onlinehelp/tools/competencies/#competencies); “A competency is a measurable, observable demonstration of something a student knows and is able to do.” (http://dcsd.k12.nv.us/main.aspx?pageid=195); “A learned skill performed in a knowledge and/or attitudinal area which can be accurately repeated or measured; an activity (cluster of skills and knowledge) that a person performs in an occupation [note by Ann: or school setting] that is both observable and measurable and that forms the basis for competency-based criteria.” (http://www.fldoe.org/cc/glossary.asp) word choice “Word Choice Even the most logical argument can be helped or hurt by the style in which it is written. Many people have difficulty developing an effective style, however, because they think that a good style is either a magical gift that one acquires at birth or the result of learning a set of infinitely complex rules. Neither of these impressions is correct. Style is a matter of decisions--bad or good--that can be made about every word one uses; style is therefore something that one can think rationally about, and something that one can learn. What one learns, however, is not merely a collection of arbitrary rules (though rules are of considerable importance); it is, instead, the habit of making conscious choices according to rational principles. Here are some of the most important principles by which effective writers choose one word or phrase rather than another. 1. The structure of the language This is the homeland of grammatical rules, rules that need to be obeyed in formal writing if one is not to be regarded as illiterate. Basic rules in formal English include, for example, the prohibition of double negatives. In many other languages, there will be no misunderstanding if you say that "Mary didn't never go to Indianapolis"; this will be regarded as simply an emphatic way of saying that she didn't go there. In formal English, however, this looks like a self-contradictory statement. Another example is subject-verb agreement; in formal English, a singular subject requires a singular verb, and a plural subject requires a plural verb: "I go there once a year" is correct, "I goes there" is not. 2. The established meanings of words We use words in order to communicate with others--not in order to confuse them or make ourselves look confused. If we are trying to communicate with well-educated people, we must make sure that we attach the same meanings to words that they do. Often this requires a reference to the dictionary or to a handbook that lists words that are frequently misused. (Your teaching assistant will help you to develop a list of such words.) Many people, for instance, are unaware of the distinction between "capital" and "capitol," or "disinterested" and "uninterested." When they write that "Judge Smith was too disinterested to occupy a bench in the capitol," they think they are saying he is too uninterested, too inattentive, to be a judge in the leading city of the state. Actually, though, they are saying that he is too unprejudiced to be a judge in a certain building. They don't know that they are writing nonsense, but some of their readers do. This sort of thing can be fatal in college papers, job applications, or any other formal writing. 3. Clarity Clear language is necessary if you are not to puzzle or irritate your audience. When revising your papers, check to make sure that you are using clear, rather than vague or misleading words. Here are two ways to check. First, underline the words you use that are capable of taking more than one meaning. These may well be the most important words in your paper, since words that are commonly used and widely debated (like "democracy" or "freedom") often acquire many meanings. Look at your underlined words and make sure that you make clear the precise sense in which you mean to use these words. (Your teaching assistant can point out some ways of doing this.) Second, read through your paper and picture or visualize the literal meaning of each word and sentence. When you do this, you can detect problems such as appear in the following examples. "I had trouble relating to Plato." This creates a very vague picture in the reader's mind. "Relating to" should be replaced by something more specific --"understanding," "agreeing with," "reading," "living by the teachings of," depending on what the writer wants to say. "Her argument centered around the ideas of the Hebrew Scriptures." I can picture something being centered, and I can picture something being around, but I can't picture something "centered around." "From this perspective we can start our next battle for university reform." Two different, conflicting images appear--one having to do with looking from a perspective, one having to do with fighting. It's hard to combine them both into one picture. How would you correct this sentence so as to make its meaning more visualizable? 4. Brevity Long words and phrases generally tire an audience more than short ones, and some long words and phrases have a pompous sound to them. Why say "utilize" rather than "use," or talk about "the author of the Republic" rather than "Plato"? Some long expressions also contain redundancies or tautologies; they say the same thing twice: "we shared the book in common"; "the house was dark-colored, grey"; "she was the most important author in the history of nineteenth-century novel-writers" (this sentence could be reduced to: "she was the most important nineteenth-century novelist"). 5. Audience The audience to which you write will not always be a "general" one; it may be a very specific group of people united by age, sex, position, professional or political interests, etc. If you are writing to a group of computer salesmen, terms of professional jargon like "input," "interface," and "user-friendly" may be fully acceptable, even mandatory. But when you write a letter to the editor praising a government agency as "user-friendly" and "receptive to the public's input," you will make yourself look like either a pretentious show-off or a person ignorant of the normal language. The degree of formality that your audience expects is also an important consideration. Contractions, for instance, are associated with rapid, informal conversation. They violate no grammatical rules or traditions, but one doesn't expect to see them in extremely formal writing. The audience of Supreme Court decisions might be shocked if Justice O'Connor began one of her decisions by saying, "We've checked the law-books, and there's no basis for the lower court's decision." But she might use many contractions in an address to the Washington Press Club, where less formal language is expected. 6. Connotations The issue of audience is to some degree an issue of connotations. In the example above, the word "checked" may have the same denotation as the word "consulted" would have; it may refer to the same activity of looking at books. But the connotations, the associations of these words, are quite different. "Checked" is associated with breeziness, informality; "consulted" with formal, careful deliberation. The two words have different tones; they project different emotions about O'Connor's work. Everyone has been in the position of agreeing with someone's views but resenting his tone. The owner of a restaurant might resent my calling it a "drive-in," even though it's located by the highway and people drive up to it. "Drive-in" carries negative connotations, a negative tone, at least if your audience is the drive-in's owner. Of course, if you want to be sarcastic or satirical, you can carefully manipulate connotations in order to achieve your desired effect. Someone writing against Justice O'Connor's decisions could describe her "checking her lawbooks" and thereby convey the impression that she is not very serious about her work. Manipulations of tone can be used to glorify as well as to condemn: "traitor," "rebel," "guerilla," "insurgent," "fighter," and "freedom-fighter" are words that may be used by people of different political beliefs to refer to precisely the same person. But whether they are used legitimately or not is a matter of fact, and not a matter of style. A writer who is merely an "effective stylist" will not fool careful readers into agreeing with "arguments" that are merely manipulations of tone. A "tyrant" does not really become a "leader" just because his propaganda department gives him an attractive label. 7. Emphasis Good stylists generally choose the most emphatic terms that are available. Often they do this simply by choosing the briefest and commonest phrases, saying "janitors" rather than "sanitary engineers." Another method of achieving emphasis is to use unexpected words. Justice O'Connor, for instance, could achieve great emphasis by injecting a contraction or colloquial phrase into one sentence of a formal decision--though she would not achieve this kind of emphasis by loading her decisions with contractions, because then no one sentence would contain the element of surprise. Something similar might be said about authors who put flowery, "imaginative" phrases into every sentence, or load every sentence with highly emotive words. This is a way of depriving all sentences of emphasis, by making all sentences the same. No one likes an essay to laugh, snort, screech, weep, or applaud continually. Another problem with using emphatic terms is the necessity of providing a logical foundation for them. Here are two sentences that say approximately the same thing, but say it in different ways: Smith's interpretation of Plato is mistaken. Smith's interpretation of Plato is fallacious and irresponsible. Which sentence would you put at the beginning, and which at the end, of an essay? The first simply announces a thesis, so it can be placed at the beginning. The second goes at the end, because it needs to be prepared for by logical argument if it is not to be regarded as simply offensive.” (http://humanities.ucsd.edu/writing/workshop/word-choice.htm); [The following is a word choice exercise] “Unlike fiction, poems require us to think about every word we use. One way to practice that kind of awareness is to write a short poem with a limited number of words. One form you can use to focus on word choice is a cinquain, which is a stanza or poem that only has five lines. Write a cinquain limiting the number of words per line to this pattern: 1-2-3-4-1.” (http://wotan.liu.edu/~mhernandez/writer2writer/word_choice.html) world view “What is a World View? What is a World View? A variety of definitions have been offered by numerous authors. For example, James Sire asserts that "A world view is a set of presuppositions (or assumptions) which we hold (consciously or subconsciously) about the basic makeup of our world."{1} Phillips and Brown state that "A worldview is, first of all, an explanation and interpretation of the world and second, an application of this view to life. In simpler terms, our worldview is a view of the world and a view for the world."{2} Walsh and Middleton provide what we think is the most succinct and understandable explanation: "A world view provides a model of the world which guides its adherents in the world."{3} Notes 1. James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1988), 17. 2. W. Gary Phillips and William E. Brown, Making Sense of Your World (Chicago: Moody Press, 1991), 29. 3. Brian J. Walsh and J. Richard Middleton, The Transforming Vision (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1984), 32. (http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/w-views.html); “A worldview is a theory of the world, used for living in the world. A world view is a mental model of reality — a framework of ideas & attitudes about the world, ourselves, and life, a comprehensive system of beliefs — with answers for a wide range of questions: What are humans, why we are here, and what is our purpose in life? What are your goals for life? When you make decisions about using time — it's the stuff life is made of — what are your values and priorities? * What can we know, and how? and with how much certainty? Does reality include only matter/energy, or is there more? Some worldview questions are about God: Can we know whether God exists? Does God exist? If so, what characteristics does God have, and what relationship with the universe? Have miracles occurred in the past, as claimed in the Bible, and do they occur now? Are natural events produced and guided by God? Was the universe self-creating, or did God create it? Was it totally self-assembling by natural process, or did God sometimes create in miraculous-appearing ways? Does God communicate with us (mentally and spiritually) in everyday life, and through written revelation, as in the Bible? What is God's role in history? Is there a purpose and meaning in history, for each of us individually and for all of us together, or is life just a long string of things happening? What happens after death?” (http://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/views/index.html) writing competencies writing “to express or communicate in writing; give a written account of.” (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/writing) competency “Competency: A competency is an ability or level of knowledge an instructor would want students to possess (i.e., students will know the plots of Shakespeare's tragedies.). A competency may exist in a nested structure as a part of other competencies.” (http://icon.uiowa.edu/support/onlinehelp/tools/competencies/#competencies); “A competency is a measurable, observable demonstration of something a student knows and is able to do.” (http://dcsd.k12.nv.us/main.aspx?pageid=195); “A learned skill performed in a knowledge and/or attitudinal area which can be accurately repeated or measured; an activity (cluster of skills and knowledge) that a person performs in an occupation [note by Ann: or school setting] that is both observable and measurable and that forms the basis for competency-based criteria.” (http://www.fldoe.org/cc/glossary.asp)
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